As customers come to believe that a firms product is unique, this allows the firm to:

Q8.1. Some third-party vendors have created "Institutional Suitability Certificates" to facilitate firms' compliance with the new institutional-customer exemption in Rule 2111(b). Has FINRA endorsed or approved any of these certificates? [Notice 12-25 (FAQ 24)]

A8.1. No. By way of background, the new suitability rule modifies the institutional-customer exemption that existed under the predecessor rule (NASD IM-2310-3). Rule 2111(b) replaces the previous rule's definition of "institutional customer" with the more common definition of "institutional account" in FINRA's "books and records" rule, Rule 4512(c).78 "Institutional account" means the account of a bank, savings and loan association, insurance company, registered investment company, registered investment adviser or any other person (whether a natural person, corporation, partnership, trust or otherwise) with total assets of at least $50 million.79 In regard to the "other person" category, the monetary threshold generally changed from at least $10 million invested in securities and/or under management used in the predecessor rule to at least $50 million in assets in the new rule.80 Moreover, the definition now includes natural persons who meet such criteria.

In addition to the definitional change, the new institutional-customer exemption focuses on two factors: (1) whether a broker "has a reasonable basis to believe the institutional customer is capable of evaluating investment risks independently, both in general and with regard to particular transactions and investment strategies involving a security or securities" (a factor used in the predecessor rule), and (2) whether "the institutional customer affirmatively indicates that it is exercising independent judgment" (a new requirement).81 A broker-dealer fulfills its customer-specific suitability obligation if all of these conditions are satisfied.82

Some third-party vendors have created and aggressively marketed proprietary "Institutional Suitability Certificates" to facilitate compliance with the new institutional-customer exemption. FINRA has not approved or endorsed any third-party Institutional Suitability Certificates and has not contracted with any third-party vendor to create such certificates on FINRA's behalf. FINRA also emphasizes that broker-dealers are not required to use such certificates to comply with the new institutional-customer exemption. As discussed below in the answer to [FAQ 8.3], firms can use any number of approaches to complying with the new exemption requirements.

Q8.2. Some of the "Institutional Suitability Certificates" that are being marketed do not identify an institutional customer's experience with particular asset classes or types of securities or investment strategies involving a security or securities. Does FINRA expect broker-dealers or institutional customers to provide more specificity? [Notice 12-25 (FAQ 25)]

A8.2. Firms should understand that the use of any such Institutional Suitability Certificate in no way constitutes a safe harbor from the rule. As noted above in the answer to [FAQ 8.1], FINRA has not endorsed or promoted any certificate. What further action a broker-dealer will need to take will depend on the facts and circumstances of the particular case. In general, however, when there is an indication that the institutional customer is not capable of analyzing, or does not intend to exercise independent judgment regarding, all of a broker-dealer's recommendations, the broker-dealer necessarily will have to be more specific in its approach to ensuring that it complies with the exemption. A broker-dealer need not automatically use a detailed approach when no such indication exists, although providing at least some level of specificity (even if not required) may help eliminate misunderstandings.

FINRA previously issued written guidance on a customer's capability of analyzing risks (a factor used in both the predecessor and new suitability rules).83 FINRA stated that a broker-dealer may conclude in some cases that a customer is not capable of making independent investment decisions in general. In other cases, the institutional customer may have general capability, but may not be able to understand a particular type of instrument or its risk. If a customer is either generally not capable of evaluating investment risk or lacks sufficient capability to evaluate the particular product or investment strategy that is the subject of a recommendation, the scope of a broker's customer-specific obligations under the suitability rule would not be diminished by the fact that the broker was dealing with an institutional customer. However, the fact that a customer initially needed help understanding a potential investment or investment strategy need not necessarily imply that the customer did not ultimately develop an understanding.

As to an institutional customer's affirmative indication that it intends to exercise independent judgment (a new requirement), Rule 2111.07 states that "an institutional customer may indicate that it is exercising independent judgment on a trade-by-trade basis, on an asset-class-by-asset-class basis, or in terms of all potential transactions for its account." In its response to comments during the rulemaking process, however, FINRA noted that a broker-dealer "is free to decide as a business matter to service only those institutional investors that are willing to make the affirmative indication in terms of all potential transactions for its account."84

Q8.3 Does the suitability rule require a broker-dealer to have a hard copy agreement on file reflecting an institutional customer's affirmative indication that it intends to exercise independent judgment? [Notice 12-25 (FAQ 26)]

A8.3. As discussed [below] in the answer to [FAQ 9.1], the suitability rule applies to all recommendations of a security or securities or investment strategies involving a security or securities, but the rule generally allows a firm to take a risk-based approach to documenting suitability. In relation to a customer affirmatively indicating the intention to exercise independent judgment, negative consent will not suffice, but the affirmative indication does not necessarily have to be in writing. A firm may use a risk-based approach to documenting compliance with this provision.

A firm could comply with this requirement, for example, by having an institutional customer indicate in a signed customer agreement or other document that the institutional customer will be exercising independent judgment in evaluating recommendations or a firm could call its institutional customer, have that discussion, and (if it chooses or circumstances require) document the conversation to evidence the institutional customer's affirmative indication.

Documentation and Supervision Regarding Suitability Obligations

Q9.1. For purposes of using a risk-based approach to documenting compliance with suitability obligations, what types of recommendations does FINRA generally consider complex or potentially risky? [Notice 12-25 (FAQ 12)]

A9.1. As with many obligations under various rules, a firm will need to make some judgment calls on the types of recommendations that it should document under FINRA's suitability rule. FINRA previously stated that, although a firm has a general obligation to evidence compliance with applicable FINRA rules, the suitability rule does not include explicit documentation requirements, except in a situation where a firm determines not to seek certain customer information in the first place.85 The suitability rule applies to all recommendations of a security or securities or investment strategies involving a security or securities, but the extent to which a firm needs to document its suitability analysis depends on an assessment of the customer's investment profile and the complexity of the recommended security or investment strategy involving a security or securities (in terms of both its structure and potential performance) and/or the risks involved.86

The recommendation of a large-cap, value-oriented equity security usually would not require documentation. Conversely, the recommendation of a complex and/or potentially risky security or investment strategy involving a security or securities usually would require documentation. Numerous Regulatory Notices and cases discuss various types of complex and/or potentially risky securities and investment strategies involving a security or securities. Firms and brokers may want to consult those Regulatory Notices87 and cases88 when considering the types of recommended securities and investment strategies involving securities that they should document.

Q9.2. What types of "hold" recommendations should firms consider documenting? [Notice 12-25 (FAQ 13)]

A9.2. For "hold" recommendations, [as discussed below in FAQ 9.3,] a firm may want to focus on securities that by their nature or due to particular circumstances could be viewed as having a shorter-term investment component; that have a periodic reset or similar mechanism that could alter a product's character over time; that are particularly susceptible to changes in market conditions; or that are otherwise potentially risky or problematic to hold at the time the recommendations are made.89

Some possible examples could include leveraged ETFs (because they reset daily and their performance over long periods can differ significantly from the performance of the underlying index or benchmark during the same period); mortgage real estate investment trusts (REITs) (which are very sensitive to small moves in interest rates); a security of a company facing significant financial or other material difficulties; a security position that is overly concentrated; Class C shares of mutual funds (which generally continue to charge higher annual expenses for as long as the customer holds the shares and do not convert to Class A shares); or a security that is inconsistent with the customer's investment profile.

Q9.3. For purposes of the suitability rule, how should a firm document recommendations to hold in particular and recommendations of strategies more generally? [Notice 11-25 (FAQ 10)] 

A9.3. As discussed above, aside from the instances when a firm determines not to seek certain information (addressed in [FAQ 3.4]), FINRA Rule 2111 does not impose explicit documentation requirements. Each firm has a general obligation to evidence compliance with applicable FINRA rules. A firm may use a risk-based approach to evidencing compliance with the suitability rule. In that context, a firm may want to focus on hold recommendations involving securities that by their nature or due to particular circumstances could be viewed as having a shorter-term investment component, that have a periodic reset or similar mechanism that could alter the product's character over time, that are particularly susceptible to changes in certain market conditions, or that are otherwise potentially risky to hold at the time when the recommendations are made. A risk-based approach also may lead a firm to pay particular attention to hold recommendations where, at the time the recommendation is made, a customer's account has a heavy concentration in a particular security or industry sector or the security or securities in question are inconsistent with the customer's investment profile.90 The same approach applies to other recommended strategies. In general, the more complex and risky the strategy, the more the firm using a risk-based approach should focus on the recommendation.

In regard to the type or form of documentation that may be needed, the facts and circumstances must inform that decision. Consistent with the discussions above, however, the complexity of and risks associated with a particular security or strategy likely will impact the level of documented analysis that is appropriate.

Q9.4. How should a firm document "hold" recommendations? [Notice 12-25 (FAQ 14)]

A9.4. The suitability rule does not prescribe the manner in which a firm must document "hold" recommendations when documentation may be necessary. Some firms may create "hold" tickets and some may add "hold" sections to existing order tickets. Other firms may require emails or memoranda to supervisors or emails or letters to customers copying supervisors. Still other firms may create data fields for entering such information into automated supervisory systems.

These are only examples of how some firms may document "hold" recommendations if necessary. Firms do not have to document or individually approve every "hold" recommendation.91 As with recommendations of other types of investment strategies or of purchases, sales or exchanges of securities, firms may use a risk-based approach to documenting and supervising "hold" recommendations. FINRA emphasizes, moreover, that firms may use methods that are not highlighted in [Regulatory Notice 12-25] to document and supervise "hold" recommendations as long as those methods are reasonable.

Q9.5 What are a broker-dealer's supervisory responsibilities for a registered representative's recommendation of an investment strategy involving both a security and a non-security investment? [Notice 12-55 (FAQ 10(b)]

A9.5. FINRA's supervision rules do not dictate the exact manner in which a broker-dealer must supervise its registered representatives' recommendations of investment strategies involving a security and a non-security investment. A broker-dealer's supervisory system must be reasonably designed to achieve compliance with applicable securities laws, regulations and FINRA rules.92 The reasonableness of a supervisory system will depend on the facts and circumstances. As FINRA has stated previously, "FINRA appreciates that no two [broker-dealers] are exactly alike. [Broker-dealers] have different business models; offer divergent services, products and investment strategies; and employ distinct approaches to complying with applicable regulatory requirements."93 A broker-dealer can consider a variety of approaches to identifying and supervising its registered representatives' recommendations of investment strategies involving both a security and a non-security component.

A broker-dealer may use a risk-based approach to supervising its registered representatives' recommendations of investment strategies with both a security and non-security component. For instance, as long as the supervisory system is reasonably designed to achieve compliance with applicable securities laws, regulations and FINRA rules, a firm could focus on the detection, investigation and follow-up of "red flags" indicating that a registered representative may have recommended an unsuitable investment strategy with both a security and non-security component.94 A registered representative's recommendation that a customer with limited means purchase a large position in a security might raise a "red flag" regarding the source of funds for such a purchase. Similarly, a registered representative's recommendation that a "buy and hold" customer with an investment objective of income liquidate large positions in blue chip stocks paying regular dividends might raise a "red flag" regarding whether that recommendation is part of a broader investment strategy.

Once a broker-dealer identifies a recommended investment strategy involving both a security and a non-security investment, the broker-dealer's suitability obligations apply to the security component of the recommended strategy95 but its suitability analysis also must be informed by a general understanding of the non-security component of the recommended investment strategy. In the context of a recommended investment strategy involving a security and an outside business activity, the broker-dealer's general understanding of the outside business activity would be based on the information and considerations required by FINRA Rule 3270.96   

Finally, broker-dealers must keep in mind that, in addition to suitability and supervisory responsibilities, firms have other regulatory obligations to investigate unusual activity.

Endnotes

1 See, e.g., Regulatory Notice 11-02, at 2-3 (discussing FINRA's guiding principles that firms and brokers should consider when determining whether a particular communication could be considered a "recommendation" for purposes of the suitability rule); Regulatory Notice 10-06, at 3-4 (providing guidance on recommendations made on blogs and social networking websites); Notice to Members 01-23 (announcing the guiding principles and providing examples of communications that likely do and do not constitute recommendations); Michael F. Siegel, Exchange Act Rel. No. 58737, 2008 SEC LEXIS 2459, at *21-27 (Oct. 6, 2008) (applying the guiding principles to the facts of the case to find a recommendation), aff'd in relevant part, 592 F.3d 147 (D.C. Cir.), cert. denied, 130 S.Ct. 333 (2010).

2 See, e.g., SEC Adoption of Rules Under Section 15(b)(10) of the Exchange Act, 32 Fed. Reg. 11637, 11638 (Aug. 11, 1967) (noting that the SEC's now-rescinded suitability rule would not apply to "general distribution of a market letter, research report or other similar material"); Suitability Requirements for Transactions in Certain Securities, 54 Fed. Reg. 6693, 6696 (Feb. 14, 1989) (stating that proposed SEA Rule 15c2-6, which would have required documented suitability determinations for speculative securities, "would not apply to general advertisements not involving a direct recommendation to the individual"); DBCC v. Kunz, No. C3A960029, 1999 NASD Discip. LEXIS 20, at *63 (NAC July 7, 1999) (stating that, under the facts of the case, the mere distribution of offering material, without more, did not constitute a recommendation triggering application of the suitability rule), aff'd, 55 S.E.C. 551, 2002 SEC LEXIS 104 (2002); FINRA Interpretive Letter, Mar. 4, 1997 ("[T]he staff agrees that a reference to an investment company or an offer of investment company shares in an advertisement or piece of sales literature would not by itself constitute a 'recommendation' for purposes of [the suitability rule].").

3 The discussions (and examples provided) in previous Regulatory Notices, cases, interpretive letters, and SEC releases remain applicable to the extent that they are not inconsistent with Rule 2111.

4 See, e.g., Rafael Pinchas, 54 S.E.C. 331, 341 n.22, 1999 SEC LEXIS 1754, at *20 n.22 (1999) ("Transactions that were not specifically authorized by a client but were executed on the client's behalf are considered to have been implicitly recommended within the meaning of [FINRA's suitability rule]."); Paul C. Kettler, 51 S.E.C. 30, 32 n.11, 1992 SEC LEXIS 2750, at *5 n.11 (1992) (stating that transactions a broker effects for a discretionary account are implicitly recommended).

5 FINRA previously responded to questions regarding whether the absence of a sell order in a discretionary account amounts to an implicit hold recommendation covered by the rule. FINRA stated that, "[t]o the extent that a customer account at a broker-dealer can be discretionary under applicable federal securities laws, the suitability rule generally would not apply where a firm refrains from selling a security." [See infra note 38] (emphasis in original).

6 Pub. L. No. 112-106, 126 Stat. 306 (2012).

7 See supra note [2].

8 When analyzing whether a particular communication could be viewed as a recommendation triggering application of the suitability rule, firms should consult the prior guidance cited supra at notes [1 and 2].

9 See FINRA Rule 0160(b)(4) (Definition of Customer).

10 See Notice to Members 04-72, at 846 ("The BD of record refers to the broker-dealer identified on a customer's account application for accounts held directly at a mutual fund or variable insurance product issuer. Accounts held in this manner are sometimes referred to as 'check and application,' 'application way,' or 'direct application'...business.").

11 Regulatory Notice 08-35, at 2 (stating that direct participation programs (DPPs) and unlisted real estate investment trusts (REITs) are referred to as "investment programs").

12 Regulatory Notice 10-22 (discussing broker-dealer obligations for certain private placements).

13 Nothing in this guidance shall be construed as altering a broker-dealer's obligations under applicable federal laws, regulations and rules or other FINRA rules, including, but not limited to, Sections 9, 10(b) and 15(c) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, Section 17(a) of the Securities Act of 1933, the Bank Secrecy Act, 31 U.S.C. §§ 5311, et seq. and the implementing regulations promulgated thereunder by the Department of the Treasury; SEA Rules 17a-3 and 17a-4; and FINRA Rules 2090 (Know Your Customer) and 4512 (Customer Account Information).

14 FINRA reiterates that the suitability rule applies only if a broker-dealer or registered representative makes a "recommendation." FINRA previously has provided guiding principles that firms and registered representatives could consider when determining whether a particular communication could be viewed as a recommendation for purposes of the suitability rule. See, e.g., FAQ [1.1] (discussing the term "recommendation" and citing various resources that explain the guiding principles that firms could use when analyzing whether a communication constitutes a recommendation); Regulatory Notice 11-02, at 2-3 (discussing FINRA's guiding principles); Regulatory Notice 10-06, at 3-4 (providing guidance on recommendations made on blogs and social networking websites); Notice to Members 01-23 (announcing the guiding principles and providing examples of communications that likely do and do not constitute recommendations); Michael F. Siegel, Exchange Act Rel. No. 58737, 2008 SEC LEXIS 2459, at *21-27 (Oct. 6, 2008) (applying the guiding principles to the facts of the case to find a recommendation), aff'd in relevant part, 592 F.3d 147 (D.C. Cir.), cert. denied, 130 S.Ct. 3333 (2010).

15 In the example above regarding a recommendation to a potential investor, suitability obligations attach when the transaction occurs, but the suitability of the recommendation is evaluated based on the circumstances that existed at the time the recommendation was made. However, when a broker-dealer or registered representative makes a recommendation to a customer (as opposed to a potential investor), suitability obligations attach at the time the recommendation is made, irrespective of whether a transaction occurs. See [FAQ 4.1], Regulatory Notice 11-02, at 3.

16 Depending on the facts and circumstances, a registered representative's recommendation to a potential investor also could raise concerns under, among other rules, FINRA Rule 2010 (Standards of Commercial Honor and Principles of Trade); FINRA Rule 2020 (Use of Manipulative, Deceptive or Other Fraudulent Devices); Rule 2210 (Communications with the Public); and NASD Rule 3040 (Private Securities Transactions of an Associated Person); see also Dep't of Enforcement v. Salazar, No. 20100224056, 2012 FINRA Discip. LEXIS 22 (Mar. 12, 2012) (finding that registered representative violated NASD Rules 2310 and 3040 when he recommended unsuitable private securities transactions to investors who were not his firm's customers, received compensation in relation to the transactions and failed to notify his firm of such activity); Maximo J. Guevara, 54 S.E.C. 655, 2000 SEC LEXIS 986 (2000) (holding that registered representative violated NASD Rules 2310 and 3040 where he recommended unsuitable securities that were sold away from the firm with which he was associated without providing his firm prior notice of such activities).

17 See FINRA Rule 2111(a).

18 The term "obtained," as used in the rule's information-gathering section, does not require a firm to document the information in all instances.

19 See FINRA Rule 2111.04 (explaining that a firm that decides not to seek to obtain and analyze information about a customer-specific factor must document its reasonable basis for believing that the factor is not a relevant consideration).

20 FINRA notes that there are SEC and other FINRA rules that explicitly require specific types of documentation. See, e.g., SEA Rule 17a-3(a)(17)(i)(A) (discussing "books and records" requirements for certain account information, including, among other things, date of birth, employment status, annual income, net worth and investment objectives, regarding an account with a natural person as a customer). See also [Regulatory Notice 11-25, at 9 n.6].

21 For an expanded discussion of this issue, see [FAQ 3.4]. See also [Regulatory Notice 12-25, at 18 n.3].

22 See DBCC v. Hurni, No. C07960035, 1997 NASD Discip. LEXIS 15, at *9 (NBCC Mar. 7, 1997) ("A broker has a duty to make recommendations based upon the information he has about his customer, rather than based on speculation."); see also Jack H. Stein, 56 S.E.C. 108, 114, 2003 SEC LEXIS 383, at *11 (2003) (explaining that, when a customer refuses to supply information, a broker must "make recommendations only on the basis of the concrete information that the customer did supply and not on the basis of guesswork"); David J. Dambro, 51 S.E.C. 513, 516-17, 1993 SEC LEXIS 1521, at *9-10 (1993) (same).

23 See [FAQ 3.4].

24 See [FAQ 3.4].

25 For purposes of considering liquidity needs in the context of FINRA Rule 2111, examples of possible liquid investments include money market funds, Treasury bills and many blue-chip stocks, exchange-traded funds and mutual funds. FINRA emphasizes, however, that a high level of liquidity does not, in and of itself, mean that the recommended product is suitable for all customers. For instance, some relatively liquid products can be complex and/or risky and therefore unsuitable for some customers. See, e.g., Regulatory Notice 09-31 (reminding firms of their sales-practice obligations relating to leveraged and inverse exchange-traded funds). 

26 See www.sec.gov/investor/pubs/assetallocation.htm.

27 Id.

28 Id.

29 FINRA also previously stated that a customer with multiple accounts at a single firm could have different investment profiles or investment-profile factors (e.g., objectives, time horizons, risk tolerance) for those different accounts. FINRA cautioned, however, that a firm should evidence a customer's intent to use different investment profiles or factors for the different accounts. In addition, FINRA explained that, where a firm allows a customer to use different investment profiles or factors for different accounts rather than using a single customer profile for all of the customer's accounts, a firm could not borrow profile factors from the different accounts to justify a recommendation that would not be appropriate for the account for which the recommendation was made. See [FAQ 3.10].

30 See supra note [22] and cases cited therein.

31 Firms should note, however, that SEA Rule 17a-3 requires that, for each account with a natural person as a customer or owner, a broker-dealer generally must create a record that includes, among other things, the account's investment objectives. See SEA Rule 17a-3(a)(17)(i). See also [infra note 86; Regulatory Notice 12-25, at 19 n.12].

32 See FINRA Rule 2111.03.

33 For certain requirements related to margin, see FINRA Rule 2264.

34 See Notice to Members 04-89 (reminding firms that "recommending liquefying home equity to purchase securities may not be suitable for all investors and that [firms] should perform a careful analysis to determine whether liquefying home equity is a suitable strategy for an investor").

35 For certain requirements related to day trading, see FINRA Rules 2130 and 2270.

36 See FINRA Rule 2111.03.

37 See FINRA Rule 2111.03. In limited circumstances, FINRA and the SEC have recognized that certain actions constitute implicit recommendations that can trigger suitability obligations. For example, FINRA and the SEC have held that associated persons who effect transactions on a customer's behalf without informing the customer have implicitly recommended those transactions, thereby triggering application of the suitability rule. See, e.g., Rafael Pinchas, 54 S.E.C. 331, 341 n.22 (1999) ("Transactions that were not specifically authorized by a client but were executed on the client's behalf are considered to have been implicitly recommended within the meaning of the NASD rules."); Paul C. Kettler, 51 S.E.C. 30, 32 n.11 (1992) (stating that transactions a broker effects for a discretionary account are implicitly recommended). Although such holdings continue to act as precedent regarding those issues, the new rule does not broaden the scope of implicit recommendations. The new rule does not apply to implicit recommendations to hold. 

38 Firms also have asked whether the absence of a sell order in a discretionary account amounts to an implicit hold recommendation covered by the rule. To the extent that a customer account at a broker-dealer can be discretionary under applicable federal securities laws, the suitability rule generally would not apply where a firm refrains from selling a security. The rule states that it applies to explicit recommendations to hold. See FINRA Rule 2111.03. Unless the facts indicate that an associated person's failure to sell securities in a discretionary account was intended as or tantamount to an explicit recommendation to hold, FINRA would not view the associated person's inaction or silence in such circumstances as a recommendation to hold the securities for purposes of the suitability rule. 

39 See FINRA Rule 2111.03.

40 See id. As described in greater detail in FAQ [4.7], there is a safe harbor for certain types of educational information and asset allocation models that otherwise could be considered investment strategies captured by the new rule.

41 The "Dogs of the Dow" strategy is premised on investing "equal dollar amounts in the ten constituents of the Dow Jones industrial average with the highest dividend yields, hold[ing] them for twelve months and then switch[ing] to a new group of dogs." Vincent Apicella, Stock Focus: "Dogs of the Dow" Companies, Forbes.com (May 29, 2001).

42 The rule would apply, for instance, to a registered representative's recommendation to a customer to purchase shares of high dividend companies even though the registered representative does not mention a particular high dividend company.

43 See Notice to Members 04-89 (discussing liquefied home equity).

44 See FINRA Rule 2111.03.

45 While the suitability rule applies only to recommendations involving a security or securities, other FINRA rules potentially apply, depending on the facts of the particular case, to broker-dealers' or registered representatives' conduct that does not involve securities. See, e.g., FINRA Rule 2010 (Standards of Commercial Honor and Principles of Trade); FINRA Rule 3270 (Outside Business Activities of Registered Persons); Rule 2210 (Communications with the Public); see also Ialeggio v. SEC, No. 98-70854, 1999 U.S. App. LEXIS 10362, *4-5 (9th Cir. May 20, 1999) (holding that FINRA's requirement that registered representatives act in a manner consistent with just and equitable principles of trade applies to all unethical business conduct, regardless of whether the conduct involves securities); Vail v. SEC, 101 F.3d 37, 39 (5th Cir. 1996) (same); Robert L. Wallace, 53 S.E.C. 989, 995, 1998 SEC LEXIS 2437, at *13 (1998) (emphasizing, in an action involving viatical settlements, that Rule 2210 is "not limited to advertisements for securities, but provide[s] standards applicable to all [broker-dealer] communications with the public").

46 FINRA made similar points regarding recommended investment strategies on several occasions under the predecessor suitability rule. FINRA explained in one instance under the predecessor rule that "recommending liquefying home equity to purchase securities may not be suitable for all investors. [Broker-dealers or registered representatives] should consider not only whether the recommended investments are suitable, but also whether the strategy of investing liquefied home equity in securities is suitable." Notice to Members 04-89, at 3. See also Donna M. Vogt, AWC No. EAF0400730002 (Feb. 21, 2007) (barring registered representative for, among other things, recommending to ten customers, many of whom were nearing retirement, that they obtain home equity loans and use the proceeds to purchase securities, without considering whether such recommendations were suitable for such customers in light of their financial situation and needs); James A. Kenas, AWC No. C3B040001 (Jan. 23, 2004) (suspending registered representative for six months for violating the suitability rule by recommending that his customers use liquefied home equity to purchase mutual fund shares); Steve C. Morgan, AWC No. C3A040016 (Mar. 9, 2004) (suspending registered representative for six months and ordering him to pay restitution of more than $15,000 for recommending that a retired couple use liquefied home equity to purchase a variable annuity).

47 See Notice to Members 05-50, at 5 ("[R]ecommendations to liquidate or surrender a registered security such as a mutual fund, variable annuity, or variable life contract must be suitable, including where such liquidations or surrender[s] are for the purpose of funding the purchase of an unregistered [equity indexed annuity].").

48 FINRA Rule 3270.01 (Outside Business Activities of Registered Persons) requires a broker-dealer, upon receipt of a registered person's written notice of a proposed outside business activity, to consider whether the proposed activity will "interfere with or otherwise compromise the registered person's responsibilities to the [broker-dealer or the broker-dealer's] customers or be viewed by customers or the public as part of the [broker-dealer's] business..." Id. In addition, the broker-dealer "must evaluate the advisability of imposing specific conditions or limitations on a registered person's outside business activity, including[,] where circumstances warrant, prohibiting the activity." Id. A broker-dealer "also must evaluate the proposed activity to determine whether the activity properly is characterized as an outside business activity or whether it should be treated as an outside securities activity subject to the requirement of NASD Rule 3040" (Private Securities Transactions of an Associated Person). Id. Furthermore, a broker-dealer "must keep a record of its compliance with these obligations with respect to each written notice received and must preserve this record for the period of time and accessibility specified in SEA Rule 17a-4(e)(1)." Id.

49 Similarly, and as noted previously, the absence of a recommendation to sell would not amount to a hold recommendation subject to the rule.

50 See FINRA Rule 2111.03.

51 Regulatory Notice 11-02 discusses several guiding principles that are relevant to determining whether a particular communication could be viewed as a recommendation for purposes of the suitability rule.

52 Nonetheless, FINRA has stated that the safe-harbor provision would be strictly construed.  See [FAQ 4.6].

53 FINRA Rule 2111.03. [FINRA Rule 2214 replaced NASD IM-2210-6 (Requirements for the Use of Investment Analysis Tools)]. See 77 Fed. Reg. 20452 (Apr. 4, 2012). As discussed above in the answer to [FAQ 4.7], Rule 2111.03 provides a safe harbor for firms' use of asset allocation models that are, among other things, based on "generally accepted investment theory." These models often take into account the historic returns of different asset classes over defined periods of time. FINRA expects a firm to be capable of explaining how an asset allocation model that it uses is consistent with generally accepted investment theory.

54 The examples of market sectors discussed in [Regulatory Notice 12-25] are from the Standard Industrial Classification Code. See SEC Division of Corporation Finance: Standard Industrial Classification.

55 When a broker-dealer recommends an allocation strategy that includes an allocation in fixed-income securities, FINRA recognizes that a number of additional factors would be relevant in determining if the broker-dealer has "recommended" particular debt securities. A firm's analysis of whether the identification of a more limited universe of fixed-income securities constitutes a recommendation of particular securities may, depending on the facts and circumstances, differ from its assessment regarding equity securities. The issuers' identities and creditworthiness are important information in determining whether to purchase a debt security, but there may be other factors that affect the pricing and any decision to invest in specific debt securities. Moreover, the relative importance of the issuers to other factors in making fixed-income investment decisions varies depending on the total mix of the relevant facts and circumstances. Thus, identifying a more limited universe of debt issuers may not constitute a recommendation if such issuers have many debt securities outstanding, of many maturities, and having distinct structures or features.

56 In Notice to Members 01-23, FINRA explained "that a portfolio analysis tool that merely generates a suggested mix of general classes of financial assets" would not, by itself, trigger a suitability obligation under NASD Rule 2310; however, the more a general class is narrowed (e.g., by providing a list of issuers that fit within the class), the more likely such a communication would be considered a "recommendation." Id. at 6 n.15. Firms should use a similar approach to analyzing whether particular recommendations are eligible for the Rule 2111.03 safe-harbor provision.

57 FINRA Rule 2111.05(a). The new rule explains that, "[i]n general, what constitutes reasonable diligence will vary depending on, among other things, the complexity of and risks associated with the security or investment strategy and the [broker-dealer's] familiarity with the security or investment strategy. A [broker-dealer's] reasonable diligence must provide [it] with an understanding of the potential risks and rewards associated with the recommended security or strategy." Id.

58 That is true under case law addressing the predecessor suitability rule as well. See Richard G. Cody, Exchange Act Rel. No. 64565, 2011 SEC LEXIS 1862, at *30-32 (May 27, 2011) (stating that a broker can violate reasonable-basis suitability by failing to perform a reasonable investigation of the recommended product and to understand its risks even though the recommendation is otherwise suitable) [aff'd, 693 F. 3d 251 (1st Cir. 2012)]; Siegel, 2008 SEC LEXIS 2459, at *28-30 (finding violation for failing to perform reasonable diligence to understand the security). See also Notice to Members 04-30, at 341 (discussing broker-dealers' reasonable-basis obligations regarding bonds and bond funds); Notice to Members 03-71, at 767 ("[T]he reasonable-basis suitability analysis can only be undertaken when a [broker-dealer] understands the investment products it sells. Accordingly, a [firm] must perform appropriate due diligence to ensure that it understands the nature of the product, as well as the potential risks and rewards associated with the product.").

59 FINRA[, in FAQ 5.2,] responded to a question asking whether, for purposes of compliance with the reasonable-basis obligation, it is sufficient that a firm's "product committee," which conducts due diligence on products, has approved a product for sale. FINRA explained that, although due diligence reviews by such committees can be extremely beneficial (see, e.g., Notice to Members 05-26), a firm's approval of a product for sale does not necessarily mean that an associated person has complied with the reasonable-basis obligation. "That is, even if a firm's product committee has approved a product for sale, an individual broker's lack of understanding of a recommended product or strategy could violate the obligation, notwithstanding that the recommendation is suitable for some investors." [FAQ 5.2].

FINRA stated that "[a] firm should educate its associated persons on the potential risks and rewards of the products that the firm permits them to recommend. In general, an associated person may rely on a firm's fair and balanced explanation of the potential risks and rewards of a product." Id. FINRA cautioned, however, that, "if the associated person remains uncertain about the potential risks and rewards of a product, or has reason to believe that the firm failed to address a particular issue or has done so in an incomplete or inaccurate manner, then the associated person would need to engage in further inquiry before recommending the product." Id.

60 See FINRA Rule 2111.05(a).

61 See, e.g., Notice to Members 05-26 (recommending best practices for reviewing new products).

62 See FINRA Rule 2111.05(a). This position is consistent with requirements under the previous suitability rule. In Dep't of Enforcement v. Siegel, for instance, FINRA's National Adjudicatory Council explained that a "recommendation may lack 'reasonable-basis' suitability if the broker: (1) fails to understand the transaction, which can result from, among other things, a failure to conduct a reasonable investigation concerning the security; or (2) recommends a security that is not suitable for any investors." Dep't of Enforcement v. Siegel, No. C05020055, 2007 NASD Discip. LEXIS 20, at *38 (NAC May 11, 2007), aff'd, Exchange Act Rel. No. 58737, 2008 SEC LEXIS 2459 (Oct. 6, 2008), aff'd in relevant part, 592 F.3d 147 (D.C. Cir. 2010), cert. denied, 2010 U.S. LEXIS 4340 (May 24, 2010).

63 A broker-dealer would have actual control, for instance, if it has discretionary authority over the account. See Peter C. Bucchieri, 52 S.E.C. 800, 805 n.11, 1996 SEC LEXIS 1331, at *12 n.11 (1996). A broker-dealer would have de facto control over an account if the customer routinely follows the broker-dealer's advice "because the customer is unable to evaluate the broker's recommendations and [to] exercise independent judgment." Harry Gliksman, 54 S.E.C. 471, 475, 1999 SEC LEXIS 2685, at *7 (1999).

64 FINRA Rule 2111.05(c).

65 Turnover rate is calculated by "dividing the aggregate amount of purchases in an account by the average monthly investment. The average monthly investment is the cumulative total of the net investment in the account at the end of each month, exclusive of loans, divided by the number of months under consideration." Pinchas, 54 S.E.C. at 339-40 n.14, 1999 SEC LEXIS 1754, at *17 n.14. Turnover rates between three and six may trigger liability for excessive trading. See Cody, 2011 SEC LEXIS 1862, at *48 (finding turnover rate of three provided support for excessive trading); Dep't of Enforcement v. Stein, No. C07000003, 2001 NASD Discip. LEXIS 38, at *17 (NAC Dec. 3, 2001) ("Turnover rates between three and five have triggered liability for excessive trading"). A turnover rate greater than six creates a presumption that the trading was excessive. See Craighead v. E.F. Hutton & Co., 899 F.2d 485, 490 (6th Cir. 1990); Arceneaux v. Merrill Lynch, Pierce, Fenner & Smith, Inc., 767 F.2d 1498, 1502 (11th Cir. 1985).

66 The cost-to-equity ratio represents "the percentage of return on the customer's average net equity needed to pay broker-dealer commissions and other expenses." Pinchas, 54 S.E.C. at 340, 1999 SEC LEXIS 1754, at *18. Cost-to-equity ratios as low as 8.7 have been considered indicative of excessive trading, and ratios above 12 generally are viewed as very strong evidence of excessive trading. See Cody, 2011 SEC LEXIS 1862, at *49 & *55 (finding cost-to-equity ratio of 8.7 percent excessive); Thomas F. Bandyk, Exchange Act Rel. No. 35415, 1995 SEC LEXIS 481, at *2-3 (Feb. 24, 1995) ("His excessive trading yielded an annualized commission to equity ratio ranging between 12.1% and 18.0%.").

67 In-and-out trading refers to the "sale of all or part of a customer's portfolio, with the money reinvested in other securities, followed by the sale of the newly acquired securities." Costello v. Oppenheimer & Co., 711 F.2d 1361, 1369 n.9 (7th Cir. 1983). A broker's use of in-and-out trading ordinarily is a strong indicator of excessive trading. Id.

68 See Regulatory Notice 11-02, at 7 n.11; SEC Staff Study on Investment Advisers and Broker-Dealers as Required by Section 913 of the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act of 2010, at 59 (Jan. 2011) (IA/BD Study). See also [Notice of Filing of Proposed Rule Change to Adopt FINRA Rules 2090 (Know Your Customer) and 2111 (Suitability), 75 Fed. Reg. 52562, 52567 (Aug. 26, 2010)].

69 Raghavan Sathianathan, Exchange Act Rel. No. 54722, 2006 SEC LEXIS 2572, at *21 (Nov. 8, 2006)      [, aff'd, 304 F. App'x 883 (D.C. Cir. 2008)]; see also Scott Epstein, Exchange Act Rel. No. 59328, 2009 SEC LEXIS 217, at *40 n.24 (Jan. 30, 2009) ("In interpreting the suitability rule, we have stated that a [broker's] 'recommendations must be consistent with his customer's best interests.'")[, aff'd, 416 F. App'x 142 (3d Cir. 2010)]; Dane S. Faber, 57 S.E.C. 297, 310, 2004 SEC LEXIS 277, at *23-24 (2004) (stating that a "broker's recommendations must be consistent with his customer's best interests" and are "not suitable merely because the customer acquiesces in [them]"); Wendell D. Belden, 56 S.E.C. 496, 503, 2003 SEC LEXIS 1154, at *10-11 (2003) ("As we have frequently pointed out, a broker's recommendations must be consistent with his customer's best interests."); Daniel R. Howard, 55 S.E.C. 1096, 1100, 2002 SEC LEXIS 1909, at *5-6 (2002) (same), aff'd, 77 F. App'x 2 (1st Cir. 2003); Powell & McGowan, Inc., 41 S.E.C. 933, 935, 1964 SEC LEXIS 497, at *3-4 (1964) (same); Dep't of Enforcement v. Evans, No. 20006005977901, 2011 FINRA Discip. LEXIS 36, at *22 (NAC Oct. 3, 2011) (same); Dep't of Enforcement v. Cody, No. 2005003188901, 2010 FINRA Discip. LEXIS 8, at *19 (NAC May 10, 2010) (same), aff'd, Exchange Act Rel. No. 64565, 2011 SEC LEXIS 1862 (May 27, 2011); Dep't of Enforcement v. Bendetsen, No. C01020025, 2004 NASD Discip. LEXIS 13, at *12 (NAC Aug. 9, 2004) ("[A] broker's recommendations must serve his client's best interests[,]" and the "test for whether a broker's recommendation[s are] suitable is not whether the client acquiesced in them, but whether the broker's recommendations were consistent with the client's financial situation and needs."); IA/BD Study, supra note [68], at 59 ("[A] central aspect of a broker-dealer's duty of fair dealing is the suitability obligation, which generally requires a broker-dealer to make recommendations that are consistent with the best interests of his customer.").

70 See Epstein, 2009 SEC LEXIS 217, at *42 (stating that the broker's "mutual fund switch recommendations served his own interest by generating substantial production credits, but did not serve the interests of his customers" and emphasizing that the broker violated the suitability rule "when he put his own self-interest ahead of the interests of his customers").

71 See Belden, 56 S.E.C. at 504-05, 2003 SEC LEXIS 1154, at *14.

72 Epstein, 2009 SEC LEXIS 217, at *72; see also Sathianathan, 2006 SEC LEXIS 2572, at *23.

73 Robin B. McNabb, 54 S.E.C. 917, 928, 2000 SEC LEXIS 2120, at *24 (2000), aff'd, 298 F.3d 1126 (9th Cir. 1990).

74 See Stephen T. Rangen, 52 S.E.C. 1304, 1311, 1997 SEC LEXIS 762, at *19 (1997).

75 See Curtis I. Wilson, 49 S.E.C. 1020, 1022, 1989 SEC LEXIS 25, at *6-7 (1989), aff'd, 902 F.2d 1580 (9th Cir. 1990).

76 Howard, 55 S.E.C. at 1100, 2002 SEC LEXIS 1909, at *6-7.

77 It is important to keep in mind that, in addition to the suitability rule, FINRA has numerous other investor-protection rules. See, e.g., FINRA Rule 2010 (requiring that a broker-dealer, "in the conduct of its business, shall observe high standards of commercial honor and just and equitable principles of trade"); FINRA Rule 2020 (prohibiting use of manipulative, deceptive or other fraudulent devices); FINRA Rule 2090 (effective July 9, 2012) (requiring broker-dealers to use reasonable diligence, in regard to the opening and maintenance of every account, to know and retain the essential facts concerning every customer to effectively service customer accounts, act in accordance with any special handling instructions, understand the authority of each person acting on behalf of customers, and comply with applicable laws, regulations, and rules); FINRA Rule 2330 (imposing heightened suitability, disclosure, supervision, and training obligations regarding variable annuities); FINRA Rule 2360 (requiring heightened account opening and suitability obligations regarding options); FINRA Rule 2370 (requiring heightened account opening and suitability obligations regarding securities futures); NASD Rule 2210 (recently approved as FINRA Rule 2210, see 77 Fed. Reg. 20452 (Apr. 4, 2012)) (requiring broker-dealers' communications with the public to, among other things, be fair and balanced, include material information, be free from exaggerated, false or misleading statements or claims, and, as to certain communications, be approved prior to use by a principal and/or filed with FINRA); NASD Rule 3010 (imposing supervisory obligations); FINRA Rule 5310 (requiring broker-dealers to provide best execution). Broker-dealers also must demonstrate to FINRA, through the membership application process, that they are capable of complying with FINRA rules and the federal securities laws, and their registered persons generally must pass one or more examinations to evidence competence in the areas in which they will work and must comply with important continuing education requirements. See, e.g., NASD Rules 1014, 1021 and 1031, and FINRA Rule 1240. These (and many other) FINRA rules provide broad and significant protections to investors. FINRA BrokerCheck®, moreover, allows investors to review the professional and disciplinary backgrounds of firms and brokers online.

78 See FINRA Rule 2111(b).

79 See FINRA Rule 4512(c).

80 Compare FINRA Rules 2111(b) and 4512(c) with NASD IM-2310-3.

81 FINRA Rule 2111(b).

82 FINRA Rule 2111(b). The institutional-customer exemption does not apply to reasonable-basis and quantitative suitability. See id.; Regulatory Notice 11-02, at 4-5. Quantitative suitability likely will apply in more limited circumstances with regard to institutional customers than it does as to retail customers. The factors that must exist for an institutional customer to qualify for the exemption may, depending on the facts, negate some of the elements relevant to a showing of a broker's "control" over the account. That will not always be the case, however. See Pryor, McClendon, Counts & Co., Exchange Act Rel. No. 45402, 2002 SEC LEXIS 284, at *20-21 & n.10 (Feb. 6, 2002) (holding that the defendant broker "controlled" the account because he essentially was a co-conspirator with the institutional customer's investment officer, who was authorized to place orders for the institutional customer's account).

83 See Regulatory Notice 11-02, at 8 n.24.

84 

.

85 See [Regulatory Notice 12-25, at 18 n.3].

86 Firms should keep in mind, however, that SEA Rule 17a-3 requires that, for each account with a natural person as a customer or owner, a broker-dealer must create a record that includes, among other things, the customer's or owner's name, date of birth, employment status, annual income, and net worth, as well as the account's investment objectives. See SEA Rule 17a-3(a)(17)(i)(A). SEA Rule 17a-3 also states that the broker-dealer must furnish such customer or owner a copy of the required account record information or alternative document with all information required by SEA Rule 17a-3(a)(17)(i)(A), including an explanation of any terms regarding investment objectives, for verification within 30 days of account opening and at least once every 36 months thereafter. See SEA Rule 17a-3(a)(17)(i)(B)(1). "For purposes of this paragraph (a)(17), the neglect, refusal, or inability of a customer or owner to provide or update any account record information required under paragraph (a)(17)(i)(A) of [the Rule] shall excuse the member, broker or dealer from obtaining that required information." SEA Rule 17a-3(a)(17)(i)(C). The account record requirements in paragraph (a)(17)(i)(A) of the Rule apply only to accounts for which the broker or dealer is, or within the past 36 months has been, required to make a suitability determination. See SEA Rule 17a-3(a)(17)(i)(D).

87 See, e.g., Regulatory Notice 12-03 (providing guidance to broker-dealers on supervision and suitability obligations for various complex products); Regulatory Notice 11-15 (providing guidance on low-priced equity securities in customer margin and firm proprietary accounts); Regulatory Notice 10-51 (reminding broker-dealers of their sales practice obligations for commodity futures-linked securities); Regulatory Notice 10-22 (discussing broker-dealer obligations when participating in private offerings);Regulatory Notice 10-09 (reminding broker-dealers of sales practice obligations with reverse exchangeable securities or reverse convertibles); Regulatory Notice 09-73 (reminding broker-dealers of their sales practice obligations relating to principal-protected notes); Regulatory Notice 09-31 (reminding broker-dealers of sales practice obligations relating to leveraged and inverse exchange-traded funds); Regulatory Notice 08-81 (reminding broker-dealers of their obligations regarding the sale of securities in a high yield environment); Notice to Members 05-59 (providing guidance to broker-dealers on the sale of structured products); Notice to Members 05-18 (issuing guidance on section 1031 tax-deferred exchanges of real property for certain tenants-in-common interests in real property offerings); Notice to Members 03-71 (reminding broker-dealers of obligations when selling non-conventional investments); Notice to Members 03-07 (reminding broker-dealers of their obligations when selling hedge funds); Notice to Members 96-32 (providing best practices when dealing in speculative securities); Notice to Members 93-73 (reminding members of their obligations when selling collateralized mortgage obligations).

88 See, e.g., Cody, 2011 SEC LEXIS 1862, at *36-40 (discussing non-investment grade securities); Wells Fargo Invs., LLC, AWC No. 2008015651901 (Dec. 15, 2011) (stating that "[r]everse convertibles are complex structured products that combine a debt instrument and put option into one product," the repayment of principal is linked to the performance of an underlying asset, such as a stock, a basket of stocks or an index, which is generally unrelated to the issuer of the note, and at maturity, if the value of the underlying asset has fallen below a certain level, the investor may receive less than a full return of principal); Chase Invs. Servs. Corp., AWC No. 2008015078603 (Nov. 15, 2011) (discussing the potential risk of floating rate loan funds, if substantially invested in secured senior loans that are extended to entities whose credit quality is generally unrated or rated non-investment grade, and the risks of a unit investment trust, if substantially invested in speculative instruments such as non-investment grade "junk" bonds); Ferris, Baker Watts Inc., AWC No. 20070091803 (Oct. 20, 2010) (discussing reverse convertibles exposing investors to risks in addition to those risks associated with investment in bonds and bond funds, and having complex pay-out structures involving multiple variables); Jeffrey C. Young, Exchange Act Rel. No. 61247, 2009 SEC LEXIS 4332, at *3-6 (Dec. 29, 2009) (discussing the risks of recommendations to certain municipalities to engage in a trading strategy involving buying and selling the same long-term, zero-coupon United States Treasury Bonds (also known as Separate Trading of Registered Interest and Principal of Securities or "STRIPS") within the same day or days using repurchase agreements (repos) to finance such purchases, which "significantly increased the risks...as repos effectively allowed the accounts to borrow large amounts of money in order to hold larger positions of STRIPS"); Siegel, 2008 SEC LEXIS 2459, at *30-32 (holding that recommendations of a private placement were unsuitable where the offering documents contained "conflicting [and] confusing information" and there "was no other information on which a prospective investor could rely to make an investment decision"); Ronald Pellegrino, Exchange Act Rel. No. 59125, 2008 SEC LEXIS 2843, at *7-10 (Dec. 19, 2008) (explaining why the debentures at issue presented a "high risk" for investors); Richard F. Kresge, Exchange Act Rel. No. 55988, 2007 SEC LEXIS 1407, at *21-23 (June 29, 2007) (describing the speculative nature of three low-priced securities at issue); Faber, 2004 SEC LEXIS 277, at *25 (discussing speculative nature of the security of a company that "had no revenues and had never showed any profits"); Jack H. Stein, 56 S.E.C. 108, 117, 2003 SEC LEXIS 338, at *15 (2003) (focusing, in part, on risks of using margin); James B. Chase, 56 S.E.C. 149, 153 & 156-157, 2003 SEC LEXIS 566, at *7-8 & *13 (2003) (discussing speculative nature of the security of "a start-up company whose business consisted of manufacturing and selling a single product" that was "new and had no established or tested market" and emphasizing the risks associated with overly concentrated securities positions); Larry I. Klein, 52 S.E.C. 1030, 1032-1034, 1996 SEC LEXIS 2922, at *5-10 (1996) (explaining risks associated with certain foreign currency debt securities); Clinton H. Holland, Jr., 52 S.E.C. 562, 565, 1995 LEXIS 3452, at *9 (1995) (remarking that securities of companies "with a limited history of operations and no profitability" are speculative); David J. Dambro, 51 S.E.C. 513, 515, 1993 SEC LEXIS 1521, at *5 (1993) (discussing risky nature of investing in a company that had a history of operating losses and concentrated its assets in illiquid holdings in other unproven start-up companies in the same industry); Gordon S. Venters, 51 S.E.C. 292, 293-94, 1993 SEC LEXIS 3645, at *3-5 (1993) (discussing risky nature of investing in a company when that company "was losing money, had never paid a dividend, and its prospects were totally speculative"); Patrick G. Keel, 51 S.E.C. 282, 284, 1993 SEC LEXIS 41, at *5 (1993) ("[O]ptions transactions involve a high degree of financial risk. Only investors who understand those risks, and who are able to sustain the costs and financial losses that may be associated with options trading should participate in the listed options markets."); F.J. Kaufman and Co., 50 S.E.C. 164, 165 n.1, 1989 SEC LEXIS 2376, at *2 n.1 (1989) ("The effect of trading on margin is to leverage any position so that the systematic and unsystematic risks are both greater per dollar of investment.").

89 [FAQ 9.3].

90 As discussed in [FAQ 4.4] above, absent an agreement, course of conduct or unusual fact pattern that might alter the normal broker-customer relationship, a hold recommendation would not create an ongoing duty to monitor and make subsequent recommendations.

91 Firms are reminded, however, that copies of all communications relating to their business as such and memoranda of brokerage orders are required to be preserved for three years. See SEA Rules 17a-3(a)(6) and 17a-4(b)(1) and (b)(4).

92 See NASD Rule 3010 (Supervision).

93 Regulatory Notice 12-25, at 2.

94 In Notice to Members 99-45, FINRA said that the supervision rule "requires that a [firm's] supervisory system be reasonably designed to achieve compliance with applicable laws and regulations. This standard recognizes that a supervisory system cannot guarantee firm-wide compliance with all laws and regulations. However, this standard does require that the system be a product of sound thinking and within the bounds of common sense, taking into consideration the factors that are unique to a member's business." Id. at 295.

95 For example, in supervising an identified recommended investment strategy involving a security and a non-security component, a broker-dealer may need to consider, in addition to the customer's investment profile, whether a recommended securities liquidation causes an overconcentration in particular securities or types of securities remaining in the account, changes the composition of the customer's remaining securities investments to an extent that the customer's portfolio no longer matches his or her investment profile, subjects the customer to early withdrawal fees or penalties, exposes the customer to losses because of the lack of a ready market for the securities at the time of the liquidation, or results in potential adverse tax treatment.

96 See also supra note [48] and discussion therein. 

Note: With this guidance, FINRA attempts to present information in a format that is easily understandable. However, please be aware that, in case of any misunderstanding, the rule language prevails.

Which of the following would be considered part of the general environment of a firm?

What is internal analysis enables the firm to determine?

Which of the following factors does not form part of the analysis of the external environment?

Which of the following is not among the steps of Analysing an external environment?