Abstract The theory of formative assessment outlined in this article is relevant to a broad spectrum of learning outcomes in a wide variety of subjects. Specifically, it applies wherever multiple criteria are used in making judgments about the quality of student responses. The theory has less relevance for outcomes in which student responses may be assessed simply as correct or incorrect. Feedback is defined in a particular way to highlight its function in formative assessment. This definition differs in several significant respects from that traditionally found in educational research. Three conditions for effective feedback are then identified and their implications discussed. A key premise is that for students to be able to improve, they must develop the capacity to monitor the quality of their own work during actual production. This in turn requires that students possess an appreciation of what high quality work is, that they have the evaluative skill necessary for them to compare with some objectivity the quality of what they are producing in relation to the higher standard, and that they develop a store of tactics or moves which can be drawn upon to modify their own work. It is argued that these skills can be developed by providing direct authentic evaluative experience for students. Instructional systems which do not make explicit provision for the acquisition of evaluative expertise are deficient, because they set up artificial but potentially removable performance ceilings for students. Show
Journal Information Instructional Science promotes a deeper understanding of the nature, theory, and practice of the instructional process and resultant learning. Papers represent a variety of perspectives from the learning sciences and cover learning by people of all ages, in all areas of the curriculum, and in informal and formal learning contexts. The journal stands out by providing space for full and detailed reporting of major studies that address learning processes, learning technology, learner characteristics, and learning outcomes. With an emphasis on original empirical research, all of its contents make a contribution to the science of instruction by drawing out the instructional implications of new research on learning. Publisher Information Springer is one of the leading international scientific publishing companies, publishing over 1,200 journals and more than 3,000 new books annually, covering a wide range of subjects including biomedicine and the life sciences, clinical medicine, physics, engineering, mathematics, computer sciences, and economics. Rights & Usage This item is part of a
JSTOR Collection. What is gap analysis?A gap analysis is a method of assessing the performance of a business unit to determine whether business requirements or objectives are being met and, if not, what steps should be taken to meet them. A gap analysis may also be referred to as a needs analysis, needs assessment or need-gap analysis. The "gap" in the gap analysis process refers to the space between "where we are" as a part of the business (the present state) and "where we want to be" (the target state or desired state). Gap analysis applicationsIn information technology, gap analysis reports often are used by project managers and process improvement teams as the starting point for an action plan to produce operational improvement. The gap analysis also helps in benchmarking actual business performance so it can be measured against optimal performance levels. Performance gaps can be measured across multiple areas of the business, including customer satisfaction, revenue generation, productivity and supply chain cost. Small businesses, in particular, can benefit from performing gap analyses when they're in the process of figuring out how to allocate resources. In software development, gap analysis tools can document which services or functions have been accidentally left out; which have been deliberately eliminated; and which still need to be developed. In compliance initiatives, a gap analysis can compare what is required by certain regulations with what currently is being done to abide by them. In human resources (HR), a gap analysis can be done to examine which skills are present in the workforce and what additional skills are needed to improve the organization's competitiveness or efficiency. How to conduct a gap analysisThe first step in conducting a gap analysis is to establish specific target objectives by looking at the company's mission statement, strategic business goals and improvement objectives. The next step is to analyze current processes by collecting relevant data on performance levels and how resources are presently allocated to these processes. This data can be collected from a variety of sources depending on what is being analyzed. For example, it may involve looking at documentation, measuring key performance indicators (KPIs) or other success metrics, conducting stakeholder interviews, brainstorming and observing project activities. After a company compares its target goals against its current state, it can then draw up a comprehensive plan. Such a plan outlines a step-by-step process to fill the gap between its current and future states, and to reach its target objectives. This is often referred to as strategic planning.
What's in a gap analysis template?While gap analysis methodologies can be either concrete or conceptual, gap analysis templates often have the following fundamental components in common. The current stateA gap analysis template starts off with a column that might be labeled "Current State." It lists the processes, workflows and characteristics an organization seeks to improve, using factual and specific terms. Areas of focus can be broad, targeting the entire business; or the focus may be narrow, concentrating on a specific business process. The choice depends on the company's target objectives. The analysis of these focus areas can be either quantitative, such as looking at the number of customer calls answered within a certain time period; or qualitative, such as examining the state of diversity in the workplace. The future stateThe gap analysis report should also include a column labeled "Future State," which outlines the target condition the company wants to achieve. Like the current state, this section can be drafted in concrete, quantifiable terms, such as aiming to increase the number of fielded customer calls by a certain percentage within a specific time period. Or it may be worded in general terms, such as working toward a more inclusive office culture. Gap descriptionThis column should first identify whether a gap actually exists between a company's current and future state. If so, the gap description should outline what constitutes the gap and the root causes that contribute to it. This column lists those reasons in objective, clear and specific terms. Like the state descriptions, these components can be quantifiable or qualitative. They might cite factors such as the lack of diversity programs or the difference between the number of currently fielded calls and the target number of fielded calls. Next steps and proposalsThis final column of a gap analysis report should list all the possible solutions that can be implemented to fill the gap between the current and future states. These objectives must be specific, directly speak to the factors listed in the gap description and be put in active and compelling terms. They should include clear objectives and a time frame for achieving them. Some examples of the next steps include hiring a certain number of additional employees to field customer calls, instituting call volume reporting and launching specific office diversity programs and resources. Gap analysis tools and examplesThere are a variety of gap analysis tools and methodologies on the market, and the particular tool a company uses depends on its target objectives. The following are some common gap analysis methods: McKinsey 7-S FrameworkThis gap analysis tool, introduced by consulting firm McKinsey & Co., is used to determine specific aspects of a company that are meeting expectations. An analyst using the 7-S model examines the characteristics of a business through the lens of seven people-centric groupings:
The analyst fills in the current and future state for each category, which would then highlight where the gaps exist. The company can then implement a targeted solution to bridge that gap.  SWOT analysisSWOT, which stands for strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats, is a gap analysis strategy used to identify the internal and external factors that drive the effectiveness and success of a product, project or person. Once these factors are determined, the company can determine the best solution by playing to its strengths and allocating resources accordingly, while avoiding potential threats. Nadler-Tushman modelThe Nadler-Tushman organizational congruence model, named after Columbia University professors David A. Nadler and Michael L. Tushman, examines how business processes work together and how gaps affect the operational efficiency of the organization as a whole. The model helps to identify these operational gaps by analyzing the company's operational system as one that transforms inputs into outputs. It divides the business processes into three groups: input, transformation and output. Input includes the operational environment, tangible and intangible resources used and the company culture. Transformation encompasses the existing systems, people and project activities currently in place that convert input into output. Outputs can take place at a system, group or individual level. The Nadler-Tushman model puts a spotlight on how inadequate inputs and transformation functions that fail to work together cohesively can lead to gaps. It also focuses on how gaps in the outputs can point to problems in the inputs and transformation functions. This model highlights how the various components fit together or are congruent. The more congruent these parts are, the better a company performs. The Nadler-Tushman model is a dynamic one that changes over time. What are the gaps in knowledge that exist between a desired level of performance and the actual level of performance?Learning needs are defined as gaps in knowledge that exist between a desired level of performance and the actual level of performance (Healthcare Education Association, 1985). In other words, a learning need is the gap between what someone knows and what someone needs or wants to know.
What are the 4 types of readiness to learn?Take time to take a PEEK at the four types of readiness to learn.. P = PHYSICAL READINESS.. E = EMOTIONAL READINESS.. E = EXPERIENTIAL READINESS.. K = KNOWLEDGE READINESS.. What are the three determinants of learning?Determinants of Learning The three determinants of learning are the needs of the learner, the readiness of the learner, and their preferred style of learning (Bastable, 2014).
What are the three mechanisms of learning style?There are three main cognitive learning styles: visual, auditory, and kinesthetic. The common characteristics of each learning style listed below can help you understand how you learn and what methods of learning best fits you.
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Gaps in knowledge between the desired level of performance and the actual level of performance are:
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