Individuals who are more are better able to integrate new information about others and situations

Measurement of Interpersonal Communication

Interpersonal communication research is based on the assumption that the nature of interaction between social actors derives from their mutual perceptions of words and actions. Interpersonal communication thus entails all behavior, verbal and nonverbal, that takes place during interaction. The key element in interpersonal communication is interpersonal relationship and the central focus of study in interpersonal relationship is the nature and quality of interaction between participants. Interaction is a process that develops over time and entails practices such as turn-taking, interruptions, topic shifts, disclosures, and confirmations. The quality of interaction in a given situation may be enhanced or hampered by variables such as complementarity (a reciprocal interaction in which the actions and words of one interactant suit or help to complete those of the other), divergence (whereby interaction orientates toward separate directions), convergence (whereby interaction orientates toward coming together), compensation (whereby interaction involves interactants filling in gaps, or making up for the failings of the others).

Key among the many concerns of researchers working at the level of interpersonal communication are attempts to understand the effect of the aforementioned variables on interactions and on interpersonal communications, and how each variable may enhance or hinder relationships. Some researchers focus on matters of social cognition and seek to understand the way people develop a knowledge of one another, as well as the level of communication competence that people bring to relationships and how this impacts on the quality of relationship that develops.

Objective 6.2. Detail the Elements of Professional Communication

Interpersonal communication is a fundamental aspect of clinical practice. It is a two-way process where both the patient and pharmacist can give information through verbal and nonverbal messages. The interpersonal communication model comprises five key elements (Fig. 6.1):

Sender—person conveying the message

Message—information conveyed (verbal and nonverbal)

Receiver—the person receiving the message

Feedback—receiver communicates their understanding of the sender's message

Barrier—any interference with the expression or understanding of the message

Key Communication Skills

Research suggests that a message is communicated via three methods, namely words, the tone of voice, and body language. The factors facilitating the communication or its barriers are not always physical, it might be behavioral or situational too. Details of these key components are described further (Fig. 6.2).14

Figure 6.2. Components on how messages are communicated.

Adapted from Mehrabian A. Silent Messages: Implicit Communication of Emotions and Attitudes. 2nd ed. Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing Company; 1981.

Body Language or Nonverbal Language

Body gestures, facial expressions, and eyes can speak a thousand words. As such, being able to interpret body language helps us to know how a patient feels during their consultation and the extent to which they are comfortable during the conversation.

Body language is the transmission and interpretation of one's feeling, attitudes, and moods via the following:

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Body posture, movement, position, and relationship to other objects and surroundings

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Facial expression and eye movement

As such, it is important to understand a patient's body language, as this will help identify points in the consultation where the patient may feel uncomfortable, confused, or disagree with something said. For example, a patient may have certain beliefs about their medication (e.g., that the medication may result in side effects, or that it is not “natural”, many are scared of chemical or genetically engineered products), which may affect their adherence. They will usually not offer this information, as they may feel their opinions will be brushed aside or misunderstood. Subsequently, it is important for a pharmacist to be able to identify some of the nonverbal cues associated with a patient's beliefs, including crossing their arms or hands during a consultation, showing a reluctance to listen, or trying to rush off during the consultation.

Verbal Language

Language is important in any consultation, either in the choice of words used or how information is being conveyed. One general rule of thumb is to avoid medical jargon and terminology, as this helps give the assurance that messages are communicated effectively. However, there is also a strong need to reflect the language and manner in which the patient speaks. For example, if the patient uses medical words during the consultation, choosing to respond in layman's terms may send out the wrong signals, as either they are not being listened to or the patient's knowledge is not being respected. As such, language and the way a patient uses language to communicate in a context is important; ultimately, this will help build rapport between the pharmacist and the patient.

In our increasingly diverse communities, it is also important to consider whether the pharmacist knows the language spoken by the patient. If not, steps should be taken to ensure that essential information can be provided by and to the patient either through a family member, another member of the pharmacy staff who speaks the patient's language, or an interpreter, if available.

Tone of Voice

The tone of voice, inflection, or nuance can help contextualize a message. An example is saying “no” in a firm tone when disagreeing with something, suggesting that the patient is adamant that this should not be done. The tone of voice will also produce different effects although the identical words may be spoken. For example, a sarcastic or threatening tone will produce different effects/emotions when compared with an empathetic tone.

Reflective Exercise

Have you ever considered assessing your own communication styles (e.g., body language, the tone of voice, and verbal language)? Try asking a family member or friend to take a video of yourself when you are in conversation with others. Watch this video and make notes on the language you portray. What changes will you make so that your communication is more effective?

Active Listening

One of the key components of effective communication is active listening. Listening is an approach to know the audience. Any communication will not be as effective without understanding the person, situaton and needs to be addressed through communication. It involves not only using the ears but also consists of a conscious effort to pay complete attention to the facial expression, body language, and verbal tone of the patient. It also involves active participation by the pharmacist (i.e., it is necessary to respond to the patient in a manner that demonstrates that the patient has both been heard and understood). In this manner, any responses can also serve to clarify the accuracy of understanding. In general, there are several types of responses which can be given.

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Paraphrasing: A response that repeats the words heard, as well as some superficial recognition of the patient's attitude or feeling. This is best used in the initial stages of patient interaction by restating phrases to reassure the patient that they are being listened to and to encourage them to continue communicating. For example, to check for the accuracy of their statement, reword the information provided in the form of a question back to the patient (i.e., “Are you saying … ?”).

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Summarizing: A response that concisely reiterates the main points of interaction or consultation. Highlight any key critical points and allow the patient to add any new information that they may have forgotten. This type of response is most important to identify any misunderstandings that may exist, especially if there are barriers to communication (e.g., language barriers). Take this opportunity to form an agreement with the patient regarding the information discussed.

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Reflection: A response that verbalizes both the content presented and the feelings of the patient. It has the advantage of showing the patient that the pharmacist is paying attention to verbalizing words/information, as well as the emotions behind them. Usually, responses often begin with phrases such as “It sounds like you are experiencing …” or “You seem to be feeling ….”. By communicating back to the patient that their feelings or concerns have been understood and are valid, a caring trusting relationship can be established.

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Clarifying: A response which questions or restates the content and feeling of the information presented. It can also be used to summarize the patient's statements into a clear, concise account. This response can begin with a phrase such as “As I understand it, you …”. These statements allow for the patient to correct or reframe their understanding, if necessary.

Empathy

Empathy is the process of communicating with patients that the pharmacist understands the patient's perspective about their disease,15 medications, and overall health. In simpler terms, this is considered “putting one's self in the patient's shoes.” It is a core ingredient in any healthcare provider–patient relationship.16 Empathy can be learned and requires that the pharmacist place importance on developing a caring response with the patient. This term should not be confused with sympathy. Sympathizing is feeling sorry for but many patients do not like showing a feeling of pity. Empathy is a more sharing approach feel the difficulty together with respect to autonomy. In empathy, the pharmacist needs to demonstrate how they respond to patients, both verbally and nonverbally. It does not necessarily require the pharmacist to experience the particular incident but will require the pharmacist to be open and able to acknowledge the feelings of the patient.

Demonstrating empathy through verbal responses means choosing words that do not judge, give advice, quiz, or placate. Rather, the words chosen should demonstrate understanding and acceptance of the patient. It should be acknowledged appropriately. For example, “I can see this is difficult for you to discuss …” or “It must be difficult for you to manage these new medicines with no one at home to help you ….”

Reflective Exercise

Empathy is showing a response that demonstrates you share or acknowledge a person’s feelings. Think about an occasion when someone you cared for shared some good news. What was your reaction as you shared their joy? Did any words convey your excitement, encouragement, or congratulations?

Communication

Effective interpersonal communication can enhance efficiency, reduce mistakes, and improve productivity. The forensic pathologist as medical examiner is often best equipped to coordinate daily group briefings to update staff on recovery statistics (number of body bags and number of identifications), changes in procedure, and any logistical issues. Such regular updates help workers maintain focus on their mission, boost morale, and limit rumors and fears.

A more extensive meeting can be held at the beginning of the operation and provide details about expectations and procedures along with a thorough review of the established facts of the investigation, and the purpose of the mission. Having workers sign confidentiality statements at this time is helpful in reinforcing an ethical standard of conduct. Concluding informational sessions provide closure and a sense of accomplishment to people who have worked hard, often separated from their families and isolated from their normal routine.

Intersectional daily briefings by team leaders will ensure that each section (pathology, anthropology, dental, fingerprints, radiology, and DNA) is aware of the issues of the other specialties and are updated with current concerns or changes in procedure. Brief intrasectional meetings at the change of shift will enhance efficiency, and encourage cooperation. Both provide opportunities for input and change in the challenging and stressful environment of a disaster.

Families of the victims must also be updated on a regular basis and receive accurate and timely information from the appropriately knowledgeable source. Often this is the forensic pathologist, who is prepared to address the medical issues and can provide accurate numbers concerning decedents recovered and subsequently identified.

Community interest and media attention is heightened during an MFI. News briefings are essential but should be held after the family meetings and restricted to information that does not infringe on the rights of the victims or the work of the criminal justice system. It is wise to designate a Public Information Officer who will be the sole person authorized to communicate with the media.

International incidents, or those disasters that occur in one country but may involve the citizens of many nations, require special consideration. The legal jurisdiction will be the responsibility of the country where the incident occurred. However, many countries may have a strong interest in the investigative and forensic process. It is important to have representatives from those countries kept informed of the process with liaisons that can also serve as interpreters.

7.01.8.2.2 Clinical implications

Hearing deficits interfere greatly with interpersonal communication, leading to strained relationships and greater caution by the elderly in an attempt to avoid making inappropriate responses to uncertain auditory signals. They also reduce the older person's ability to hear noises such as a siren or a door knock (Gatehouse, 1990). These changes are almost impossible to avoid noticing (Slawinski, Hartel, & Kline, 1993), and it is perhaps for this reason that hearing loss forms a threshold for a large percentage of individuals over the age of 70 years and particularly those in their 80s (Whitbourne, 1996b). There is evidence linking hearing loss to impaired physical functioning (Bess, Lichenstein, Logan, & Burger, 1989) and psychological difficulties including loneliness (Christian, Dluky, & O'Neill, 1989) and depression (Kalayam, Alexopoulos, Merrell, & Young, 1991).

Those who interact with hearing-impaired elders can benefit from learning ways to communicate that lessen the impact of age-related changes (Slawinski et al., 1993). Modulating one's tone of voice, particularly for women, so that it is not too high, and avoiding distractions or interference, can be important aids to communicating clearly with older adults. The clinician can also use observations of the elderly client's reaction to communication difficulties in therapy as the basis for clinical recommendations. For example, identity accommodation can be encouraged in a client who denies the existence of an obvious hearing deficit; a client who has no apparent hearing deficit but appears preoccupied with this particular threshold will need to develop a more balanced approach to this area of functioning.

7.02.7.2.2 Clinical Implications

Hearing deficits greatly interfere with interpersonal communication, leading to strained relationships and greater caution by the older adult in an attempt to avoid making inappropriate responses to uncertain auditory signals. They also reduce the older person's ability to hear noises such as a siren or a door knock. These changes are almost impossible to avoid noticing, and it is perhaps for this reason that hearing loss can form a threshold for a large percentage of individuals over the age of 70 and particularly those in their 80s. Because of the stigma traditionally associated with hearing loss, older individuals may avoid wearing hearing aids, thereby exhibiting identity assimilation. However, older individuals may reach the point where denial of the need for some type of amplification is no longer feasible. Fortunately, as these devices become smaller and easier to use, more older individuals may accept these devices particularly as they experience the benefits of having their hearing restored.

Even without a hearing aid, however, it is possible for older adults, and those who interact with them, to facilitate conversation by following various communication strategies. These would be of value to the clinician to put into practice, and also to share with patients and their families. The first technique is to look directly at the person while speaking and make sure that there is enough light so that the older adult can clearly see the speaker's face. Background noises should be minimized as these can interfere with the audio stream the individual is trying to follow. At restaurants and social occasions, older adults should find a place to talk that is as far away as possible from crowded or noisy areas. Speakers should also look directly at the older adult and not chew gum or food while talking. Speaking more slowly (but not too slowly) and providing background context can also be helpful (Janse, 2009). Strategies to avoid include speaking too loudly, which can distort the speech signal and to speak in a patronizing or condescending manner. It is also inappropriate to refer to the person in the third person or leave the person out of the conversation altogether.

Conclusion

Over the past 20 years, computer-mediated interpersonal communication has evolved significantly. The Internet has increasingly become more user-friendly and a more powerful tool for information exchange, communication, and connection. Although the Internet can now be seen as an integral part of everyday life, providing many opportunities for communication, education, connection, and support, those opportunities are not without risk. Technology has provided psychotherapists with the ability to reach people who, not so long ago, would have had no opportunity for psychotherapy. For example, even in rural areas, people with Internet access have the ability to join online groups dealing with very specific and focused issues. As new technologies emerge and people become more comfortable with online activities, it is clear that the delivery of health care in general, and mental health care in particular, will be shaped by this technology.

Therapists willing to take the time to become familiar with the technology currently available, and willing to keep abreast of future developments, will be at the forefront of a very satisfying and valuable means of providing group therapy.

Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency

Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP), as opposed to Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS) (Cummins, 2003), is an important issue in assessment of individuals for whom English is not their first language and for persons with communication disorders and delays. The WJ IV offers CALP levels (ranging from 1 [Extremely Limited] to 6 [Very Advanced]) as a scoring option for tests involving oral and written language. An “Instructional Implication” for proficiency at grade or age level (Nearly Impossible to Extremely Easy) is provided for each CALP level. Obviously, we should select CALP descriptors and report and explain them when we assess persons whose first language is not Standard English. However, CALP descriptions can also be very helpful when we assess individuals with oral language disorders and intellectual disabilities. Figure 2.6 shows a portion of Ellie’s CALP scores and interpretation levels.

7 Conclusions

Psycholinguistic studies of dialog that preserve as many of the natural aspects of spontaneous interpersonal communication as possible (while at the same time achieving sufficient control) have found evidence that speakers and addressees can adapt to each other from the early moments of processing. That is, processing need not be encapsulated from relevant partner-specific information that is straightforward and known in advance. Under some circumstances, speakers can adjust immediately to their addressees' needs or perspectives, even when these are distinct from their own. The following considerations, we propose, represent useful design considerations for experimental studies that aim to uncover the cognitive and/or neural bases of language processing in communicative contexts, and in particular, partner-specific processing:

To the extent that an experimental task affords behavioral, eye-tracking, or imaging evidence that can be measured independently from evidence in the stimulus events or transcript, this gives the experimenter a window into subjects' cognitive processing.

The “language game” that subjects are asked to play should be well characterized and staged such that it does not exclude the behavior that it aims to study. To this end, imaging studies with tasks that require subjects to communicate should yield valid data about the kind of processing that underlies language-as-action.

Especially useful is evidence that unfolds moment by moment and can be synchronized with events or a transcript, or that can be collected from two interacting partners and synchronized.

To experimentally distinguish “for-the-self” from “for-the-other” processing, partners doing a joint task must (at least at some point in the task) have perspectives, needs, or knowledge states that can be operationally distinguished from each other's.

Unless the goal is to study perspective taking under cognitive load, information about one partner's needs must be available to the other partner in a timely enough fashion to be incorporated into speech planning, articulation, or interpretation—otherwise, one cannot conclude that behavior that seems to be egocentric is actually egocentric.

It may be useful for an experimental design to distinguish local (sensorimotor) cues from global cues that are updated less often, or at least to take this distinction into account.

It may be useful to characterize cues as to whether they consist of signals intended to be recognized as communicative (in the Gricean sense), or whether they are simply informative. This may determine whether they activate the mentalizing system.

When thinking about how to model partner-adapted processing, it is productive to consider fMRI and electrophysiology data alongside eye-tracking and behavioral studies of communication. We anticipate that timing data from electrophysiology studies and anatomical data from imaging studies have potential to clarify process models that would otherwise be ambiguous. Each approach can shape and inform the kinds of questions that the other can ask, as well as the kinds of cognitive models that it makes sense to propose. Ultimately, plausible cognitive models must be guided by neurological constraints.

The distinction between local cues and global partner models that we have developed in our behavioral studies seems to map naturally onto the mirror system and the mentalizing network, respectively. Our findings about how local and global sources of information shape one another to achieve partner-adapted processing lead us to seek out ways in which the mirror and mentalizing systems coexist in the service of language and communicative processing. Executive control appears to play an important role in both kinds of systems: for instance, to inhibit mimicry in the mirror system when necessary, and to select, suppress, or update a global perspective, especially when more than one perspective is implicated in the context (e.g., self vs. other).

The mirror system automatically processes social cues that are sensorimotor in nature (e.g., voice, gaze, body motion, backchannels), whereas ToM underlies more conceptual modeling of a partner's perspectives, needs, and intentions. It remains to be established whether and how these circuits interact. But given the range of processes they support and the likely importance of these processes in interpersonal communication, we expect that they do interact. Previous imaging studies (e.g., as surveyed by Van Overwalle & Baetens, 2009) have failed to clearly establish how they may work together, but this does not mean they are independent, especially since many of the tasks currently in use (especially for ToM) are based on an impoverished notion of what constitutes dialog. Most of the tasks employed so far in ToM studies have not involved interpersonal interaction (or first- or second-person communicative intent); progress could accelerate with more sophistication in the kinds of language tasks that imagers employ. Another challenge is that sometimes it is difficult to determine exactly which anatomical areas are activated in a particular study. There is much that is unknown about the potential connectivity among regions and about the time course of their activation. And it is extremely difficult to stage an experiment in a scanner that involves speaking; perhaps, new experimental techniques will make it easier to use tasks that preserve the essence of spoken (or even face-to-face) dialog, such as near-infrared spectroscopy (Suda et al., 2010).

We also expect that new evidence from imaging studies will help to clarify how ToM and mirroring neural circuits work in concert with those traditionally associated with language, with profound implications for neural models of joint processing both within and between the minds of language users. Understanding how brain networks interact may promote a more nuanced understanding of why communication failures occur, of individual differences in perspective taking, and of the neural basis of communication deficits.

In closing, we suggest that to study language use based entirely on individual cognitive processes is to overlook a ubiquitous and astonishing human skill: the coordination of the behavior and mental states of interacting individuals. Interpersonal coordination is so pervasive that it is worthy of scientific investigation in its own right. This skill proceeds in parallel (and is closely integrated) with traditional psycholinguistic processing. For that reason, we advocate studying language processing along with interpersonal coordination in order to understand what it is that minds actually do when communicating.

Social communication

A critical area of assessment and intervention for social adaptation after brain injury centers around interpersonal communication. With the exception of the well-known localized lesions causing aphasia, brain injuries can leave speech and language functions either intact or well preserved. However, the lack of frank language deficits (e.g., anomia, comprehension deficit) does not mean that the patient has functional social communication skills. For example, patients may display many types of pragmatic language impairments that disrupt social communication, such as literal interpretation and expression, perseveration, impulsive remarks, talking incessantly, socially inappropriate comments, tangential talk, lack of attention, and inability to understand when someone is joking or teasing. These abilities spill over from the basics of word finding, grammar, syntax and word comprehension, to inferential reasoning, social cognition, and EFs, which are common areas of deficits after brain injury.

Recognizing and remediating social communication deficits after brain injury is an important dimension of community reintegration and relationship reintegration. McDonald (2010) provided an interesting overview of remedial approaches to social pragmatic communication deficits after TBI. She related much of her work to the seminal ideas of Ylvisaker et al. (2005). For example, emphasis was placed less on basic language skill development and more on meaningful interactions and contextually specific communication. Communication training partners were recommended to provide quick feedback and learning cues, moving toward self-coaching as the long-term strategy for patients. The effects of such interventions appear to be positive, particularly in earlier stages of recovery and when linked to opportunities for social interaction and integration.

Communicating About Oneself to Others

Sharing information about oneself, or self-disclosure, is a central avenue of interpersonal communication and another way to create intimacy in relationships. Self-disclosure is defined as personal information about oneself that is communicated to another. Disclosure differs in terms of its breadth, depth, and duration. Breadth refers to how many different topics are covered in the disclosure, depth to how personal or intimate the level of disclosure is, and duration to the length of the actual disclosure.

A common way for people to disclose information about themselves is to construct an account. An account is a package of impressions, perceptions, attributions, emotions, and description, formed into a story. Someone would develop an account about an event in his or her life in order to gain a sense of control and meaning around the event. Sharing that account with others is a way of giving out information about yourself, helping others to understand you, or influencing others' impressions of you. People may construct accounts about other people's behavior as well and share those accounts for the same reasons: to give out information about the leading players in those accounts or to influence others' impressions of either the account maker or the actors in the story.

Self-disclosure is a key concept in social penetration theory. Social penetration theory describes the process by which people develop relationships. As two people get to know each other, there is usually a social exchange as people take turns disclosing. One person's mild disclosure often triggers this exchange. The second person in the interaction can then choose to disclose in return or not. If so, there may be a continuing spiral of increasing intimacy between the two people. These disclosures gradually become more intimate and involve more depth. Through this process, the communication partners uncover information about each other, developing a multilayered understanding of the other that serves as a foundation for the relationship. Thus, one major purpose of disclosing personal information is establishing friendship or intimacy with another.

A second use of self-disclosure is as a social strategy, revealing or withholding information in order to obtain a goal. For example, you might share a sympathetic story about yourself in order to get someone to assist you in a task or to talk your way out of a negative consequence of some kind. In contrast, you might disclose your pride in a success in order to make a good impression at a job interview.

Disclosure can also be used as a catharsis, or a venting of emotion. There is research demonstrating that disclosure of this kind can be therapeutic, if an empathetic listener receives it. Early theories of self-disclosure assumed that this type of disclosure was always beneficial and that the willingness to self-disclose was a sign of mental health. Now, however, it is clear that disclosure is more complex than this, and that there are several risks involved in the decision to self-disclose. There is a risk of rejection by the listener, loss of personal control over the information shared, and of embarrassing the listener.

Self-disclosure is a discretionary behavior; that is, people control how much, to whom, and when they wish to disclose. Self-disclosure can also be a goal-oriented behavior; it can be used for different purposes in different situations. There is risk attached to self-disclosure. For all of these reasons, perceptions of others are crucial to decisions about disclosure. The impressions and attributions we have formed regarding others affect the extent of our willingness to disclose to them and the circumstances under which we are willing to disclose. We may be more likely to disclose to people who appear warm, receptive, and trustworthy. We may also disclose more to those who appear to have advantages to offer us in return for our disclosures. For example, someone is likely to self-disclose more readily to a prospective romantic partner who is both attractive and congenial than to one who appears to be either cold or personally unappealing.

Individuals manage their communication and disclosure with others to further their social goals. A major theoretical perspective related to this idea is that of self-presentation or impression management. This research assumes that people take on different roles in their daily lives, much like actors on a stage. Individuals select certain appearances or behaviors intended to convey a particular image for others.

One person may have a variety of roles or images he or she can portray, depending on the situation or the social goal of the moment. Some strategic methods of self-presentation that have been identified by researchers include emphasizing one's strengths or accomplishments, advertising one's moral superiority, portraying oneself as a helpless victim, ingratiating oneself through flattery and admiration, and appearing aggressive or intimidating. Individuals may rely on one particular self-presentation method in most of their interactions with others, or may vary their self-presentation based on the needs of the situation.

Different people are more or less motivated to change their self-presentation to suit the social requirements of different situations. Self-monitoring is a term used to describe the awareness of changes in social situations and the desire to alter one's self-presentation in order to better fit into those situations. People who are high self-monitors have many different images they are able and willing to present; people who are low self-monitors are more consistent in their self-presentation across many different situations. People also vary in how anxious they are in social situations; this can affect how well they manage their self-presentation. Extroverted people are generally more at ease with self-presentation strategies than are introverts; however, this appears to be mainly due to some introverts' anxiety over social interactions rather than a lack of skill in impression management.

The growing use of technology as a communication medium creates new questions about person perception and self-disclosure. In the past decade, much research has focused on the increasing use of the Internet as a medium for interpersonal communication. Because these types of communications tend to be relatively brief and made at a distance, communication partners often do not have the benefit of nonverbal or emotional expression in order to reduce uncertainty or help form judgments about the other. Early studies seemed to confirm that communicating through media such as e-mail, chat rooms, or cell phone text messages had the expected negative effect on communication effectiveness and social intimacy.

However, newer research findings are more equivocal. Some research indicates that communication via Internet increases openness in self-disclosure, promotes positive feelings about communication partners, and allows frequent interaction with friends and family. It is possible that as these technologies have become more established and accepted as useful communication tools, people have adapted their patterns of communications and social judgments as well. One hypothesis is that people who suffer from anxiety in face-to-face social encounters may be more at ease communicating by computer and thus able to have more satisfying social interactions. Social scientists have only begun to explore the effects of technology on interpersonal perceptions and communication. It is not clear as yet what the full impact of newer technologies will be on patterns of interpersonal communication.

How much one communicates to others about oneself is a complex social decision. This self-disclosure may serve several purposes: social penetration, social manipulation, or emotional catharsis. People often build accounts about themselves to use specifically in telling their stories to others. They may also strategically balance how much they reveal in order to maximize social benefits through self-presentation while minimizing the inherent risks in disclosing personal information. To do this well, people must make judgments about the receptivity, trustworthiness, or helpfulness of others. Thus, disclosure decisions are linked to the process of interpersonal perception.