Cognitive science research has found that embedding instruction in a familiar
context enhances both student achievement and student attitudes (Boyd & Jackson, 2004; Ku & Sullivan, 2000; Papadopoulos, Demetriadis, & Stamelos, 2009; PT3 Group at Vanderbilt, 2003). Context, for example, plays a key role in the design and development of problem- based learning (Barrows & Kelson; 1996; Morrison & Lowther, 2002; Spronken-Smith, 2005) and anchored instruction (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 1999). For example, consider a course for legal professionals on
searching electronic databases. A very simple approach to teaching how to use a database such as Westlaw would be to display the search screen and point to where to enter data and which button to click to search. This same presentation could be enhanced by embedding the teaching of the search strategy within a context. For example, the instruction could create a scenario in which the student is searching for information on disputed property lines to keep Big Al’s Super Food Market from
encroaching on a client’s backyard. Providing a context for teaching the search strategy makes the content concrete and realistic and helps the student understand not only the search strategy but also how it can be applied on the job.
Analysis of the instructional context provides rich data for designing real-world examples and scenarios (Parrish, 2009; Tessmer & Richey, 1997). Why should a designer be concerned with this larger environment? First,
instruction and learning do not take place in a vacuum. The context influences every aspect of the learning experience. Second, context is a collection of factors that can inhibit or facilitate instruction and learning. For example, a classroom across the hall from the break room will probably be noisy and have other distractions that can disrupt the instruction. However, a classroom that is well equipped with a video projector and computers for each student, for example, can facilitate
instruction that requires the use of the technology. Third, a single class can require multiple contexts. For example, a fifth-grade classroom using a problem-based learning approach might survey historic buildings in the neighborhood, do research at the historical society, use a computer lab, and conduct small-group meetings in the hallway. Learners in a popular geology course offered by an oil company might visit various geological sites in Texas and at the Grand Canyon and end with a
snorkeling trip to the Caribbean, all to observe different geological structures. Each of these contexts provides a unique learning environment. A thorough context analysis ensures that the planned instruction fits the instructional environment (Hannafin, 2005; Parrish; 2009; Tessmer & Harris, 1992).
Types of Context
There are three types of context an instructional designer
should analyze when designing instruction (Tessmer & Richey, 1997). First is the orienting context, which focuses primarily on the learner. Second is the instructional context, which provides information about the physical environment and scheduling of training. Third is the transfer context, which considers the opportunities for transferring the knowledge and skills to new situations. A description of each of these context types follows.
Orienting Context.The first part of this discussion focuses on learner characteristics, that is, the knowledge, skills, and attitudes the learner brings to the instruction. A designer might want to consider three other variables.
First, what are the learners’ goals for taking or attending this course or instruction? Some individuals
in business approach a course simply as another week of paid vacation! As a new student or trainee, what were your goals for your first course? Were you simply concerned with getting an A or obtaining a certificate, or were you more concerned with learning new knowledge and skills? With knowledge of the learners’ goals or lack thereof, you can consider how to design the preinstructional strategy as well as the instruction.
Second, what is the learners’ perceived utility of the instruction?Do the learners see the course as providing them with useful information? For example, a university installed new Touch-Tone phones in faculty members’ offices many years after they had Touch-Tone phones at home. The communications department prepared a four-hour training program on the new phones. Faculty and staff perceived little utility in the training because
the only features the phones had were for receiving incoming calls and making calls. Voice mail, call forwarding, and conferencing would not be available for a year or more. As a result of the low perception of utility, only a few people attended the training.
The third factor to consider is the learners’ perceptions of accountability. Are the learners accountable for mastering the content
presented in the course? For example, many faculty members have discovered that students will not participate in an online discussion or create personal web pages if these do not count toward their grades. Similarly, adults attending training that does not lead to certification or some other form of accountability (e.g., pay increase or promotion) may have a low perception of accountability and may demonstrate less transfer of the knowledge or investment in the course. A designer who understands
the learners’ goals, utility, and accountability can use this information in the design of the instruction.
Instructional Context. Simple strategies such as planning to use a PowerPoint presentation on Thursday can turn to disaster when you discover the hotel does not have a video projector (they thought you wanted an overhead projector)! Several years ago, it was common practice to have
both a PowerPoint presentation and overhead transparencies. Today, facilities may have a video projector but may lack the appropriate cable for your device.
Some of the common environmental factors to consider in instruction are described in Table 3-1. Many corporations employ meeting coordinators who help instructors address some of these issues. Each of these factors requires careful consideration. For example, you might plan a course on using Excel to
calculate the return on investment (ROI) of a project or improvement. Such a course assumes that students have access to computers; thus, you need a computer lab with the software installed or each student will need to bring a laptop to class with the software installed. If you are planning to offer the course at a hotel, is it feasible to set up a computer lab? Your only option might be to create a self-paced course using printed materials, a CD-ROM, or the web so that learners can complete the
training at their computer workstations. Careful consideration of the instructional environment early in the design process is essential.
Another environmental factor to consider is the scheduling of the course. For example, what are the problems with offering a course in January in Minneapolis or another city in the snowbelt versus Houston or Atlanta? Similarly, offering a two-week course the second week of December may not generate a large
enrollment because of the holidays. If you are planning a workshop for teachers, what are the date and time limitations during the school year? Another factor to consider is the length of a course and its meeting times. It is not unusual to find one-week or even six-week courses offered in business. But how do you accommodate a course you planned as a weeklong course (e.g., five days for eight hours a day) when management dictates that the course must be offered one or two days a week for only
two hours and that it must start one hour before the regular workday begins? What modifications will you need to make? Some companies also require that courses be offered on weekends. For example, one Fortune 500 company’s introductory management courseis always held on Saturdays. Management’s philosophy is that only those employees who are really interested in moving into the management track will be willing to give up a few Saturdays to
make the transition.
Transfer Context. A goal of any instruction should be the continual application of the knowledge and skills learned. This last type of context analysis focuses on creating an environment that promotes the application of the newly learned knowledge and skills to a diverse range of situations. Learners are more likely to transfer the knowledge if they perceive that it can help them do
their jobs. Similarly, a learner needs access to the tools and resources required to apply the skills. For example, work assignments that require the use of spreadsheets to perform calculations will need access to a computer with Excel installed if students are to use the information learned in the course. Thus, sending an engineer to a course on using an Excel template to calculate ROI requires that the engineer have access to a computer in the work environment if she is to transfer the new
knowledge to the job.
Two other factors that can inhibit the transfer of knowledge and skills are opportunities and support. If learners do not have frequent opportunities or need to calculate expected ROI, then they are unlikely to transfer the skill to new situations. If the learners’ manager does not support the use of Excel or even punishes learners for using it, then they are less likely to transfer the knowledge to new
situations.
Conducting a Contextual Analysis
The common tools for conducting a contextual analysis include surveys, observations, and interviews. Start by identifying factors that might affect your instructional design plan by providing either opportunities or constraints. Then determine how to collect the necessary data.
You may need to refine your contextual analysis after you start designing the instruction and when you refine your delivery strategy and instructional strategies.
Collecting Data.Rich data are needed to provide the designer with an accurate picture of the instructional environment. Surveys using both forced-choice (e.g., rating scales and
multiple-choice items) and open-ended questions can provide a quick picture of the environment. For example, a designer might send a survey to several sites to gather information about the training room facilities or the types of computers and software available in the labs. Surveys can also be used to assess learner perceptions and the organizational support for the instruction. A designer might send such an instrument to both the target audience and the supervisors and/or managers of the
audience.
Consider an instructional designer planning a multimedia unit on how to operate cash registers in a national chain of grocery stores. You might start first with a survey to determine the availability and the type of computer(s) each store has for training. Second, you might want to know what type of cash register each store is using. By collecting these two pieces of data, you can determine the lowest common denominator for the computers used to
deliver the instruction. If over 35% of the stores have computers that are six years old, you can make some initial assumptions about the capabilities of the machines and take this limitation into consideration when designing animations. If the results of the survey indicate that more than one type of cash register is used, the instruction will need to include instructions for each type. To make the instruction more efficient, there will need to be a means of selecting or preselecting the
appropriate cash register for the training.
Observations provide the instructional designer with a firsthand picture of the envi- ronment. Designers can observe the layout of facilities to determine their applicability for various instructional strategies. A room with fixed seating might not be appropriate for a course that relies heavily on small-group work or role-plays. The senior author once pre- sented in a room that was touted as a well-equipped,
state-of-the-art presentation room. Yes, it had a large screen and video projector. Unfortunately, there was no way to connect the laptop to the video projector, the windows faced east and let the morning sunlight shine on the screen and in the presenter’s face, and the two entrances to the room were on either side of the screen and behind the presenter. Although the author could use the facility’s desktop computer and deal with those arriving late, he could not control the air-conditioning
vents directly behind the projection screen, which caused it to wave continuously! Although a survey might suggest that the rooms are appropriate, a direct observation can reveal any problems or enhancements.
Interviews can provide a picture of potential learners in their work environments. Interviewing members of the target audience and their supervisors can provide a rich source of contextual information. Tessmer and Richey (1997) suggested using
open-ended questions that allow for a wide range of potential answers. Interviews conducted in the workplace can also provide insights into the factors that can support or inhibit the transfer of learning.
Analyzing Data. The collected data are analyzed to identify environmental factors that will influence the design and delivery of instruction. This analysis should identify factors that place
limitations on the design and delivery of the instruction, that facilitate the design and delivery, and that are missing from the analysis.
