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Critical Thinking Exercise� What is the most important thing you have learned outside of a classroom?� Why?� Any relatively permanent _____________ in behavior brought about by experience.� Classical Conditioning� Operant Conditioning� Cognitive Learning� Observational LearningClassical Conditioning� Learning to make a ___________ response to a stimulus other than the original, natural stimulus that normally produces the reflex.Ivan Pavlov� Russian physiologist (person who studies the workings of the body) who discovered __________________ through his work on digestion in dogs.Pavlov�s Observation (1926)� Studied digestion in dogs� Presented meat powder and measured salivation� Dogs started salivating ____________ food was presented� Why?Pavlov�s Experiment: Phase 1� Food (US): salivation (UR )� Reflexive response� Tone: nothingPavlov�s Experiment: Phase 2� CS is repeatedly paired with the US� A tone is sounded before the food is presented� AcquisitionPavlov�s Experiment: Phase 3� Eventually, the CS elicits a new CR� Classical conditioning is complete when hearing the tone by itself causes salivationClassical Conditioning Concepts� Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) - a _______________________ stimulus that leads to an involuntary response.� Unconditioned means �______________� or �naturally occurring.�� Unconditioned response (UCR) - an __________________ response to a naturally occurring or _______________ stimulus.� Conditioned stimulus (CS) - stimulus that becomes able to produce a learned reflex response by _________________________ the original unconditioned stimulus.� Conditioned response (CR) - learned ________________ response to a conditioned stimulus.� The CR behavior is always the _________ behavior as the UR.� What distinguishes them is what they occur _____________ to (US vs. CS).Classical Conditioning: A More Relevant Example (College Spring Break)� Unconditioned Stimulus =� Unconditioned Response =� Conditioned Stimulus =� Conditioned Response =��Conditions� for Classical Conditioning� The CS must come _____________ the UCS.� The CS and UCS must come _________________________ in time�ideally, only several seconds apart.� The neutral stimulus must be paired with the UCS _____________ times, often many times, before conditioning can take place.� The CS is usually some stimulus that is _______________ or stands out from other competing stimuli.Classical Conditioning Concepts� Stimulus generalization - the tendency to respond to a stimulus that is only _________________ to the original conditioned stimulus with the conditioned response.� Stimulus discrimination - the tendency to stop making a _____________ response to a stimulus that is _____________ to the original conditioned stimulus because the similar stimulus is never paired with the unconditioned stimulus.� Extinction - the ________________ or weakening of a learned response following the removal or absence of the unconditioned stimulus (in classical conditioning) or the removal of a reinforcer (in operant conditioning).� Spontaneous recovery � the _________________ of a learned response after extinction has occurred.� Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior.� Higher-order conditioning - occurs when a strong conditioned stimulus is paired with a neutral stimulus, causing the neutral stimulus to become a _______________ conditioned stimulus.Conditioned Emotional Response� Conditioned emotional response (CER) - emotional response that has become _____________________________ to occur to learned stimuli, such as a fear of dogs or the emotional reaction that occurs when seeing an attractive person.� CERs may lead to phobias � irrational ___________ responses.The Case of �Little Albert�� �Little Albert� was conditioned to fear a _________________ and other similar stimuli (Watson & Rayner, 1920)Other Conditioned Responses� Vicarious conditioning - classical conditioning of a reflex response or emotion by watching the ______________ of another person (Bandura & Rosenthal, 1966).� Conditioned taste aversion - development of a ___________________ or aversive response to a particular taste because that taste was followed by a nausea reaction, occurring after only one association (Garcia & Koelling, 1966).� Biological Preparedness - tendency of animals to learn certain associations, such as taste and nausea, with only one or few pairings due to the ___________________ of learning (Gustavson et al., 1976)Operant Conditioning� Operant conditioning - the learning of _______________ behavior through the effects of pleasant and unpleasant ___________________ to responses (Skinner, 1938).� Thorndike�s Law of Effect - law stating that if a response is followed by a pleasurable consequence, it will tend to be ___________________, and if followed by an _________________ consequence, it will tend not to be repeated (Thorndike, 1911).B.F. Skinner�s Contribution� Behaviorist; wanted to study only _____________, measurable behavior.� Gave �operant conditioning� its name.� Operant - any behavior that is _______________.� Learning depends on what happens ____________ the response � the consequence.Skinner�s RatsOperant Conditioning ConceptsReinforcement� Reinforcement - any event or stimulus, that when following a response, __________________ the probability that the response will occur again.� Positive reinforcement - the reinforcement of a response by the addition or experiencing of a __________________ stimulus.� Negative reinforcement - the reinforcement of a response by the removal, escape from, or avoidance of an ______________ stimulus.�Types of Reinforcers� Primary reinforcer - any reinforcer that is ______________ reinforcing by meeting a basic biological need, such as hunger, thirst, or touch.� Secondary reinforcer - any reinforcer that becomes reinforcing after being paired with a _____________________, such as praise, tokens, or gold stars.Punishment� Punishment - any event or object that, when following a response, makes that response _____________________ to happen again.� Punishment by application - the punishment of a response by the addition or experiencing of an ________________ stimulus.� Punishment by removal - the punishment of a response by the removal of a ________________ stimulus.How to Make Punishment More Effective� Punishment should ________________________ the behavior it is meant to punish.� Punishment should be ________________.� Punishment should be _________________ aversive.� Punishment of the wrong behavior should be paired, whenever possible, with reinforcement of the ____________________.Negative Reinforcement vs. Punishment� Negative reinforcement ________________ the likelihood of a behavior, whereas punishment _________________ the likelihood of a behavior.Other Operant Conditioning Concepts� Shaping - the reinforcement of ___________________ in behavior that lead to a desired, more complex behavior.� Successive approximations - small steps in behavior, one after the other, that lead to a particular goal behavior.� Extinction � occurs if the behavior (response) is not _______________.� Operantly conditioned responses also can be generalized to stimuli that are only ______________ to the original stimulus.� Spontaneous recovery (reoccurrence of a once ___________ response) also happens in classical conditioning.Schedules of Reinforcement� Fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement - schedule of reinforcement in which the number of ________________ required for reinforcement is always the same.� Variable ratio schedule of reinforcement - schedule of reinforcement in which the number of responses required for reinforcement is _________________ for each trial or event.� Fixed interval schedule of reinforcement - schedule of reinforcement in which the interval of time that must pass before reinforcement becomes possible is always the ______________.� Variable interval schedule of reinforcement - schedule of reinforcement in which the interval of ____________ that must pass before reinforcement becomes possible is different for each trial or event.Behavior Modification� Behavior modification - the use of _____________________ techniques to bring about desired changes in behavior.� Token economy - type of behavior modification in which desired behavior is _________________ with tokens.� Time-out - a form of _______________________ by removal in which a misbehaving animal, child, or adult is placed in a special area away from the attention of others.� Applied behavior analysis (ABA) � modern term for a form of behavior modification that uses ________________ techniques to mold a desired behavior or response (Lovaas, 1964).Cognitive LearningCognitive Learning Theory� Early days of learning � focus was on _______________.� 1950s and more intensely in the 1960s, many psychologists were becoming aware that ______________, the mental events that take place inside a person�s mind while behaving, could no longer be ignored (Kendler, 1985).Latent Learning� Edward Tolman�s best-known experiments in learning involved teaching three groups of rats the same maze, one at a time (Tolman & Honzik, 1930).� Group 1 � rewarded each time at end of maze.� Learned maze quickly.� Group 2 � in maze every day; only rewarded on 10th day.� Demonstrated learning of maze almost immediately after receiving reward.� Group 3 � never rewarded.� Did not learn maze well.� Latent learning - learning that remains ____________ until its application becomes useful.Learned Helplessness� Learned helplessness - the tendency to fail to act to escape from a situation because of a history of repeated ________________ in the past (Seligman, 1975).Insight� Insight - the _______________ perception of relationships among various parts of a problem, allowing the solution to the problem to come quickly (Kohler, 1925).� Cannot be gained through trial-and-error learning alone.� �__________� moment.Observational Learning� Observational learning - learning new behavior by watching a _________ perform that behavior.� Learning/performance distinction - referring to the observation that learning can take place without actual ________________ of the learned behavior.Albert Bandura�s Famous BoBo Doll Experiment (1961)� Two Groups� Group 1: models played nonaggressively� Group 2: models played aggressively� Children _________________ the actions of the model they sawFour Elements of Observational Learning� ATTENTION - To learn anything through _______________, the learner must first pay attention to the model.� MEMORY - The learner must also be able to ______________________ of what was done, such as remembering the steps in preparing a dish that was first seen on a cooking show.� IMITATION - The learner must be capable of ___________________, or imitating, the actions of the model.� MOTIVATION - Finally, the learner must have the ________________ to perform the action.���Is the classical conditioning of a conditioned response by watching the reaction of another person?classical conditioning of a reflex response or emotion by watching the reaction of another person. original theory in which Pavlov stated that classical conditioning occurred because the conditioned stimulus became a substitute for the unconditioned stimulus by being paired closely together.
What is a reflex according to classical conditioning?The reflex is the building block of Pavlovian conditioning. The unconditioned stimulus and unconditioned response together comprise the reflex. The eye blink to a puff of air to the cornea is an example of a reflex.
What is the example of classical conditioning?The most famous example of classical conditioning was Ivan Pavlov's experiment with dogs, who salivated in response to a bell tone. Pavlov showed that when a bell was sounded each time the dog was fed, the dog learned to associate the sound with the presentation of the food.
What is a classical conditioning in psychology?Classical conditioning is a learning process focused more on involuntary behaviors, using associations with neutral stimuli to evoke a specific involuntary response.
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