Native american groups flourished in the southwest between 900 and 1130 ce due to the following;

The Southwest

In the first centuries ad three major farming cultures arose in the Southwest: the Ancestral Pueblo (also known as the Anasazi), the Mogollon, and the Hohokam. All had cultural connections to the earlier Cochise culture. Indians of the Southwest had begun to grow corn and squash by about 1200 bc. But they could not produce reliable harvests until they overcame the region’s dryness using irrigation.

The Ancestral Pueblo lived on the plateau where the states of Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, and Utah now meet. Their descendants make up the modern Pueblo Indian tribes. The Ancestral Pueblo constructed low stone walls, called check dams, to divert the flow of water from streams to their fields. From ad 1150 to 1300 they built massive houses along the sides or under the overhangs of cliffs. These cliff dwellings had 20 to as many as 1,000 rooms and up to four stories.

The homeland of the Mogollon was the mountainous region of what are now southeastern Arizona and southwestern New Mexico. They used small dams to pool rainfall and divert streams for watering crops. At first the Mogollon lived in pit houses, but later they built apartment-style houses like those of the Ancestral Pueblo. They also made the first pottery in the Southwest.

The Hohokam people lived along the Salt and Gila rivers in what is now southern Arizona. They lived in villages of pit houses made of brush and mud, though eventually they too built some Ancestral Pueblo–type buildings. The Hohokam are famous for their complex network of irrigation canals, which was unsurpassed in prehistoric Northern America. Some of the more than 150 miles (240 kilometers) of canals in the Salt River valley were renovated and put back into use in the 20th century. The Pima and the Tohono O’odham (Papago) are modern descendants of the Hohokam.

The East

The prehistoric farmers east of the Mississippi River are known as Eastern Woodland, and later as Mississippian, peoples. Over the centuries Archaic Indians of this region had learned to cultivate such plants as sunflowers, squash, and sumpweed. By about 500 bc the production of these plants had become the basis of the Adena culture. It occupied what is now southern Ohio. The Adena people buried their dead in large earthen mounds, some of which were hundreds of feet long. They also built great earthworks in the shape of animals. These are called effigy mounds. The mounds were built by heaping up basketful after basketful of earth. Some of these large mounds still exist.

The most advanced Eastern Woodland culture was that of the Hopewell Indians. It lasted from about 200 bc to ad 500, mainly in southern Ohio. Like the Adena, the Hopewell built elaborate earthworks for burial and other purposes. In addition, expert artists and craftsmen made carved stone pipes, a variety of pottery, and spear points, knives, axes, and other tools of flint and obsidian (a form of volcanic glass). They also made ceremonial objects out of copper. The Hopewell traded widely. Material from as far away as the Rocky Mountains and the coasts of the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean have been found in Hopewell sites.

The last great prehistoric culture in Northern America was the Mississippian. Beginning in about ad 700 it spread throughout the Southeast and much of the Northeast. The Mississippian culture was based on the production of corn. The people lived in large towns governed by priest-rulers. The largest Mississippian town was at Cahokia, near present-day Saint Louis, Missouri. At its peak, it housed 10,000 to 20,000 people. Each town had one or more huge, flat-topped pyramid mounds that supported temples where elaborate religious rituals were performed. The Mississippian culture lasted until the first European explorers arrived. Some Mississippian groups, such as the Natchez, managed to maintain their ethnic identities into the 21st century.

The Plains

Prehistoric farmers of the Great Plains are known as Plains Woodland and then Plains Village peoples. In this region Archaic peoples dominated until about ad 1, when ideas and perhaps people from Eastern Woodland cultures arrived. Between that time and about ad 1000, Indians of Plains Woodland cultures settled in small villages along rivers and streams. They raised corn, beans, and eventually sunflowers, gourds, squash, and tobacco.

Around ad 1000 Plains peoples began to combine their small villages to form larger settlements. The riverbanks became more densely settled. Thus began the Plains Village period, which lasted until about 1450. Like the Mississippian peoples, these cultures developed elaborate rituals and religious practices. The descendants of the Plains Village groups include such tribes as the Arikara, Mandan, Hidatsa, Crow, and Pawnee.

The Arctic

The northernmost lands of North America make up the Arctic culture area. This region lies near and above the Arctic Circle and includes parts of present-day Alaska and Canada. Temperatures are very cold for most of the year, and winters are especially harsh.

The native peoples of the North American Arctic include the Inuit and the Aleut. Their traditional languages belong to the Eskimo-Aleut language family. These groups are more closely related to people in Asia than to the groups to their south. Thus scholars generally separate the American Arctic peoples from the American Indians. Many Alaskan groups prefer to be called Native Alaskans rather than Native Americans. Most of Canada’s Arctic peoples prefer the name Inuit.

The Arctic peoples of North America traditionally were hunters and gatherers. Some peoples moved with the seasons in search of food. In the summer they followed migrating herds of caribou (reindeer). Fishing was another source of food in summer. In the other seasons they hunted seals, sea otters, walrus, and whales. Other Arctic peoples were more settled, living year-round in villages along the coast. These groups got nearly all their food by fishing and hunting sea mammals.

Most Arctic peoples spent the winter in well-insulated houses built partly underground. The houses were made of stone or sod over a framework of timber or whalebone. In Alaska, except for the far north, they heated their homes with a central wood fire that burned beneath a smoke hole. In the north, heat was provided by a large lamp lit by oil taken from sea mammals.

The people nearest the Arctic Ocean relied on temporary houses called igloos in winter, when they moved onto fresh ice fields in search of seals. An igloo was usually dome-shaped and made from blocks of snow. It was heated and lighted by burning seal blubber in a shallow saucer. Caribou hunters and lake and river fishermen used igloos on land. The caribou hunters of northern Alaska often lived through the winter in dome-shaped tents made from a double layer of caribou hides. Heat and light were provided by burning caribou fat. In summer these people lived in lighter animal-skin tents.

Some peoples of the Arctic built a special large house called a kashim. It was used for public and ceremonial occasions and as a men’s residence. The kashim was the place where men built their boats, repaired their equipment, took sweat baths, educated young boys, and hosted community dances. Women had their own homes in which they worked and cared for their children. Often the women’s homes were connected to one another and to the kashim by a system of tunnels.

Arctic peoples kept warm with clothing of animal skins and furs. They wore pants, boots, mittens, and a hooded coat called a parka. Caribou skin had the advantage of being lightweight. Sealskin was useful because it was waterproof.

Nearly all Arctic peoples used two types of boats: the kayak and the umiak. Both types were made of animal skins stretched over a driftwood or whalebone frame and were paddled. A kayak was covered except for a cockpit in which one or two paddlers sat. An umiak was larger and open on top. Men used kayaks for fishing and hunting, usually seals. They used umiaks for hunting whales. Women used umiaks for transporting themselves, children, the elderly, and possessions. In winter people traveled on sleds that were pulled by dogs or by both dogs and people.

Arctic peoples hunted caribou and other land animals with bows and arrows. They used harpoons to kill seals and walrus, which they hunted either from shore or from kayaks. Kayak-based seal hunters often used a spear-thrower to increase the speed and force of the harpoon. An umiak used for whaling was manned by a professional crew. It was led by the boat’s owner and a marksman who wielded a heavy harpoon.

The Subarctic

The culture area south of the Arctic is called the Subarctic. It includes most of what are now Alaska and Canada. The climate is cool, and the land is fairly flat and covered mostly by swampy evergreen forest.

The Subarctic can be divided into two parts based on language families. The Eastern Subarctic is home to speakers of Algonquian languages, including the Innu, Cree, and Ojibwa (Chippewa). The Western Subarctic is largely inhabited by Athabaskan speakers, whose territories extend from Canada into Alaska. They include the Chipewyan, Beaver, Slave, and Deg Xinag.

Subarctic Indians traditionally lived by hunting and gathering. Their diet included moose, caribou, bison, beaver, waterfowl, and fish. They gathered wild plant foods such as berries, roots, and sap. Food resources were scarce in the harsh landscape, and starvation was always a threat. One way Subarctic peoples dealt with the scarcity was by preserving food. Across the region, people preserved meat by drying and pounding it together with melted fat and dried berries to make a food called pemmican. This was an excellent concentrated food and was often used when traveling or hunting. Near the Pacific, the Indians preserved salmon by smoking it.

Families and bands moved as the seasons changed. In northwest Canada groups scattered in early winter to hunt caribou in the mountains. Elsewhere, autumn drew people to the shorelines of lakes and bays where ducks and geese could be taken for winter storage. At other times people gathered around lakes to fish.

Subarctic peoples built well-insulated homes for protection from the cold. The Deg Xinag spent winters in houses dug into the soil and roofed with beams and poles. Other groups, such as the Cree and Ojibwa, built cone-shaped winter lodges durably roofed with branches, earth, and snow. On the trail during the summer, people put up portable, cone-shaped tents called tepees, which were covered with animal skins. Sometimes they camped in the open facing a fire.

Subarctic Indians made most of their clothing from moose and caribou skins. Women tanned the skins through a chemical process that used animal brains or human urine. Then they sewed the skins into garments with the help of bone needles and animal sinew. Subarctic Indian clothing included pants, shirts, robes, and soft heelless shoes called moccasins.

As hunters and fishers, all Subarctic groups relied on various weapons, traps, and tools for their livelihood. They used lances, spears, and bows and arrows, which had stone or bone tips for different kinds of game. They captured game with pit traps and deadfalls—traps with logs or other weights that fall on animals and kill them. Fishing tools included traps, nets, and enclosures called weirs.

Just as important to these Indians were their vehicles. Survival depended on traveling long distances in search of new food sources. Subarctic peoples made bark canoes and wooden sleds called toboggans, which were used to haul heavy loads. Snowshoes enabled hunters to run down big game and made winter travel easier for everyone.

Many Subarctic peoples believed that hunting success depended on treating prey animals and their remains with reverence. Among other practices, they disposed of the animals’ bones carefully so that dogs could not chew them. Bears inspired particular respect. Men took a purifying sweat bath before the hunt and make an offer of tobacco to a bear that had been killed.

The Northeast

This culture area reaches from what is now southern Canada to the Ohio River valley. East to west, it extends from the Atlantic coast to the Mississippi River valley. The climate is mild, with plentiful rainfall. Forests spread over mountains and valleys. There are many lakes and streams. The Northeast Indians largely depended on the trees, the animals that lived in the woods, and the fish and shellfish from the streams and the sea.

Most tribes of the Northeast belonged to either the Algonquian or Iroquoian language family. Tribes that spoke an Algonquian language included the Algonquin, Wampanoag, Mohican, Mohegan, Ojibwa, Sauk, Fox, and Illinois. Iroquoian-speaking tribes included the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, Seneca, and Huron. The Ho-Chunk (Winnebago) people spoke a Siouan language.

Most Northeastern peoples were farmers. They planted corn, squash, beans, pumpkins, and gourds. Some produce was dried and stored for winter meals. Northeast Indians also fed themselves by hunting and gathering. The diet included deer, elk, moose, waterfowl, turkeys, fish, leaves, seeds, tubers, berries, roots, and nuts. Some areas offered special things to eat. In the forests, the Indians tapped the sugar maples and boiled the sap to make sugar. The Ojibwa and other tribes of the northern Great Lakes area had plenty of wild rice. The seashore and many rivers offered shellfish.

Because they knew how to grow crops, Northeast Indians did not have to travel to find food. They settled in villages, which they usually clustered beside a lake, stream, or other source of fresh water. Most villages had a few dozen to a few hundred residents. The Indians drove sharpened poles into the ground to make a high fence, or palisade, around the village to protect it from attack by other people or by large animals. The farm fields lay beyond the fence. When the ground lost its richness through years of planting, the game in the area became scarce, or the local supply of firewood was used up, the villagers left their old homes and moved to a new location.

Perhaps the most widely used house in the Northeast was the dome-shaped wickiup (or wigwam). The Indians made a frame of small, flexible trees, or saplings. They stuck them firmly in the ground in a circle, then bent them overhead in an arch and tied them together with tough bark fibers. Next, other branches were wrapped in circles around the bent poles and tied to them. Slabs of bark, reeds, or woven mats were tied to this frame to form the roof and walls. A fire in the center provided heat for cooking and for warmth.

The Iroquois and certain other tribes built a larger kind of home, called a longhouse. Like wickiups, longhouses were also made of a framework of poles covered with bark sheets. But they were roughly rectangular in floor plan, with a door at either end and an arched roof. A typical longhouse probably was home to 10 families, each with its own living space.

Northeast women made clothing from the skins of deer and other game. In summer, the women wore a wraparound skirt, the men a breechcloth. A breechcloth was a strip of soft leather drawn between the legs and held in place by looping it over a belt at the waist. The men usually shaved their heads, leaving only a scalp lock. Their headdresses were of dyed deerhair or a few feathers. In winter, both men and women wore leggings and robes made of leather or fur. Both men and women wore moccasins. Women decorated clothes with painting, porcupine-quill embroidery, shells, or shell beads. They created designs of the flowers, leaves, and vines they saw in the woods.

Northeast Indians took advantage of the forests by making many items out of wood. Women of many tribes knew how to weave mats, baskets, and belts from shredded bark, wood splints, and other fibers. Dishes and spoons were fashioned from bark and wood. Mortars were made of hollowed logs, and small logs were used as pestles.

Northeast Indians skimmed over lakes and streams in canoes of birch bark. Some canoes, called dugouts, were made from the hollowed trunks of whole trees. The forest also provided materials for the frames of snowshoes, which aided travel in winter. The shafts for bows, arrows, and spears were made of wood as well. Points for arrows and spears were chipped from stone, as were knives and other sharp-edged tools. A variety of bone tools were also made, mainly for processing animal hides into soft leather.

The Southeast

This region extends from the southern edge of the Northeast culture area to the Gulf of Mexico. From east to west it stretches from the Atlantic Ocean to somewhat west of the Mississippi River valley. The climate is warm. The land includes coastal plains, rolling hills, and a portion of the Appalachian Mountains. As in the Northeast, forests once covered much of the region. Sometimes the Northeast and Southeast culture areas are together called the Eastern Woodlands.

The Southeast was one of the more densely populated areas of North America at the time of European contact. Among the Southeast Indians were the Cherokee, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Creek, and Seminole, which are sometimes called the Five Civilized Tribes. Other tribes included the Natchez, Caddo, Apalachee, Timucua, and Guale. Traditionally, most Southeastern tribes spoke languages of the Muskogean family. There were also some Siouan language speakers and one Iroquoian-speaking group, the Cherokee.

The economy of the Southeast was mostly agricultural. The leading crop was corn, followed by beans and squash. Southeast Indians grew several varieties of corn. Some varieties were baked or roasted on the cob, and some were boiled into succotash—a dish of stewed corn and beans. Other varieties were pounded into hominy or cornmeal. Southeast Indians also raised sunflowers and tobacco and gathered wild plant foods, including greens, berries, nuts, acorns, and sap.

Wild game was abundant in most of the Southeast. The Indians hunted deer, elks, black bears, beavers, squirrels, rabbits, otters, raccoons, and turkeys. In what is now Florida the diet included turtles and alligators. Southeast tribes also fished in the rivers and the sea and gathered oysters, clams, mussels, and crabs. Along the coast, heaps of discarded shells mark the sites of many ancient camps.

Southeast Indians usually built their settlements in places with good soil for planting. There were two basic types of settlements. Most of the people lived in hamlets, or small villages, located in river valleys. Each hamlet typically contained storage buildings and summer kitchens in addition to a few houses. The other settlement type was the town, which was often surrounded with a protective timber palisade. Usually a number of hamlets were associated with each larger village or town, where the whole community gathered occasionally for celebrations and ceremonies.

Housing styles varied in different parts of the Southeast. In much of the region people built circular winter houses with cone-shaped roofs. These houses were sealed tight except for an entryway and smoke hole. Summer dwellings were typically rectangular with a sloping roof made of thatch. The walls were built using the wattle and daub method—a framework of upright poles and woven branches was plastered with clay. In Florida the Seminole developed the chickee, a house with a raised floor, palmetto-thatched roof, and open sides. To the west, some groups lived in domed grass houses.

Southeast Indians made most of their clothing out of deerskin. Men typically wore a breechcloth and sometimes a shirt or cloak. Women usually wore a skirt with a tunic or cloak. Leggings and robes of bear fur or bison hide provided warmth in winter. Some Indians decorated their skin with tattoos or body paint.

Like the peoples of the Northeast, the Southeast Indians made use of the abundant forests. To make dugout canoes, they hollowed out a log by burning the inside and scraping away the charred wood. They used upright, partly hollowed logs as mortars. Other items made of wood included bows, arrow shafts, dishes, and spoons. The inner bark of the mulberry tree was used as thread and rope and in making textiles.

Other important raw materials in the Southeast included bone and stone, which were used to make arrowheads, clubs, axes, scrapers, and other tools. The Indians found many uses for cane, a tall, treelike grass once widespread in the Southeast. They used its hollow stems to make household goods such as baskets, mats, and containers as well as weapons such as knives, blowguns, and fishing spears. Southeast tribes obtained copper through trade with western Great Lakes peoples. They worked the metal to create beads, rings, and bracelets. Shells were used for beads and pendants and to decorate ritual objects.

The Plains

The Plains culture area lies in the center of North America. It is a vast grassland that reaches from the Rocky Mountains to the Mississippi River and from what is now southern Canada to the U.S. state of Texas. Summers are warm and winters are cold. West of the Missouri River are dry, short-grass prairies. In the east are rolling tallgrass prairies that get more rain and snow. In some places the prairies are interrupted by tree-lined river valleys.

The Plains tribes belonged to six different Indian language families: Siouan, Algonquian, Uto-Aztecan, Caddoan, Athabaskan, and Kiowa-Tanoan. The Métis of the Canadian Plains spoke Michif, which combined Plains Cree, an Algonquian language, and French. Plains peoples also invented a sign language to represent common objects or ideas.

The Plains culture area is unique in that the mobile culture it is best known for came about after contact with Europeans. Before contact, most Plains peoples lived in villages and got their food from farming, hunting, and fishing. Among these tribes were the Mandan, Hidatsa, Pawnee, Arikara, Omaha, Osage, and Wichita. But after Spanish settlers brought horses to North America, many Plains tribes abandoned farming to spend their lives following herds of bison, or buffalo. These groups included the Sioux, Blackfoot, Crow, Cheyenne, Arapaho, Comanche, and Kiowa. The mounted Plains hunter and warrior remains the dominant image of the American Indian throughout the world.

Early Plains villagers grew corn, beans, squash, and sunflowers. Women tended the crops and also collected wild produce such as prairie turnips and chokecherries. Men grew tobacco and hunted elk, deer, and especially bison. Whole communities took part in driving herds of bison over cliffs. Fish, fowl, and small game were also eaten.

The huge bison herds moved around constantly seeking pasture, and the Indians had a hard time catching them when they had to hunt on foot. Horses made the hunt much easier. Spanish settlers first brought horses to the Southwest. Between 1650 and 1750 they spread to the Plains. At first most hunters used bows and arrows while hunting on horseback. Later they used guns acquired through trade with Europeans.

Bison became the main food source for Plains tribes. After the hunt, the women skinned the carcasses and cut up the meat. Most of the meat was cut into thin strips and jerked. Jerking meant hanging the strips on a rack in the dry wind that swept the plains. This dried meat would keep for a long time. Sometimes it was pounded and mixed with fat and berries to make pemmican.

Before 1700 most Plains tribes lived in villages along the Missouri and other rivers. Some villages had populations of up to a few thousand people. The dwellings were mostly dome-shaped earth lodges. These were roofed and walled with earth and entered through a covered passage. The Osage and the Wichita built houses that were similar to the wickiup of the Northeast.

Many Plains tribes gave up permanent villages after they got horses. These nomadic tribes lived in portable, cone-shaped tents called tepees. Village tribes also used tepees while on the hunt. A tepee was typically made by stretching a cover of bison skins over a framework of wooden poles. A tepee was large enough to house a two- or three-generation family.

The women used bison hides and the softer, finer skins of deer and antelope to make garments. They decorated clothing with porcupine-quill embroidery, fringe, and, in later times, glass and ceramic beads. On the northern Plains, men wore a shirt, leggings, and moccasins. In cold weather they wore bison-skin robes painted with scenes of battles they had fought. Among the villagers and some southern nomads, men left the upper part of the body bare and often tattooed the chest, shoulders, and arms. Some warriors wore warbonnets, or headdresses made with eagle feathers, on special occasions. Women’s clothing typically consisted of a long dress, leggings, and moccasins.

Plains Indians used different parts of the bison and other animals to make all sorts of things. From bison hides they made bedding, utensils, and carrying cases, called parfleches. The horns were carved into spoons and ladles, the hooves cooked to make glue. Plains villagers cultivated their crops using antler rakes, wooden digging sticks, and hoes made from the shoulder blades of elk or bison. Some cooking pots also came from the bison. A stomach or a piece of hide was fitted into a hole in the ground and used for cooking.

One of the chief skills of the men was making weapons and keeping them in good condition. They whittled bows from Osage orange or other tough wood and shaped them in a double curve. They made arrows with a sharp stone head until European traders provided metal points. They lashed feathers to the arrow butt to make it fly straight.

Village tribes along the Missouri River used a bowl-shaped bullboat. They made it by stretching a bison hide over a wooden frame. It was too clumsy for long-distance water travel, but it could be used to ferry people and gear across a river.

For land travel, Plains Indians depended on a device called the travois. It consisted of two poles in the shape of a V, with the open end of the V dragging on the ground. Tepee covers and other gear were placed on a platform between the two poles. At first dogs pulled the travois. Later, horses did the pulling.

The Great Basin

This desert region reaches from the Rocky Mountains west to the Sierra Nevada. The Columbia Plateau lies to the north, and the Mojave Desert is to the south. The Great Basin encompasses almost all of the present-day U.S. states of Utah and Nevada as well as parts of Oregon, Idaho, Wyoming, Colorado, Arizona, and California. The region is so named because the surrounding mountains create a bowl-like landscape that prevents water from flowing out. The mountains have some pine forests, but few plants grow on the desert floor. Game animals are scarce as well.

Most of the Great Basin Indians traditionally spoke Numic languages. Numic is a division of the Uto-Aztecan language family, a group of languages common in the western United States and Mexico. The Numic speakers included the Mono, Paiute, Bannock, Shoshone, Ute, and Gosiute. The Washoe, whose territory centered on Lake Tahoe, spoke a Hokan language. It was related to languages spoken in parts of what are now California, Arizona, and Baja California, Mexico.

The peoples of the Great Basin were hunters and gatherers. For most groups, wild plant foods and small game formed the bulk of the diet. Great Basin Indians used more than 200 species of plants, mainly seed and root plants. Each autumn they gathered nuts from piñon pine groves in the mountains, storing much of the supply for winter use. Some Paiute groups did a little farming along the rivers. Game animals included antelope, rabbits, rodents, snakes, and lizards. Groups that lived near lakes fished and hunted waterfowl.

Many Indians in the northern and eastern Great Basin changed their way of life after horses became available. Horses brought to the Southwest by the Spanish may have spread to the Great Basin by the mid-1600s. The Great Basin peoples who used horses took on cultural traits similar to those of the nomadic Plains Indian people. Bison became their major prey animal. They also hunted deer, elk, and mountain sheep on horseback.

Great Basin peoples were nomadic, traveling the desert in search of food. The tribes that used horses were able to cover a much larger area than those on foot. Because of the limited food supply, Great Basin Indians traveled in small groups. In winter they typically lived in villages along the edge of valley floors near water and firewood. They moved their summer camps frequently so they would not exhaust the plants and animals in any given place.

Great Basin tribes traditionally built two types of shelters. In summer they used simple brush windbreaks. In winter they built domed wickiups covered with brush, bark, grass, or reed mats. Tribes that used horses replaced these shelters with Plains-style tepees. Peoples in the west and south, however, used the traditional house forms well into the 1800s.

Many Great Basin Indians wore little or no clothing, especially during the hot summer months. Among groups in the south and west, bark aprons and breechcloths were common. In winter rabbit-skin robes provided warmth. Peoples who lived near the Plains wore garments made from animal skins. Like the Plains Indians, these groups decorated their clothing with dyed porcupine quills and, later, glass beads. Many people went barefoot, but some wore leather moccasins or sandals made from yucca plants.

The tools of the Great Basin Indians were typical of hunting and gathering cultures: the bow and arrow, stone knife, digging stick, basket, net, and grinding stone for processing seeds. They caught rodents with snares and traps or pulled them from burrows with long hooked sticks. Rabbits were driven into nets and clubbed or were shot with bows and arrows. Antelope were driven into corrals and traps. Deer, elk, and mountain sheep were taken with bows and arrows or in traps. Waterfowl were netted, trapped, or shot with arrows that had rounded heads and were intended to stun the bird. Some groups made decoys of reeds covered with duck skins. Fishing equipment included lines and hooks, harpoons, nets, and weirs (underwater traps) made of willow.

Some Great Basin peoples wove baskets of branches and grasses. These were functional, but they were also works of art. Shoshone, Paiute, and Ute groups made coarse pottery. Some Shoshone made jars and cups from a soft stone called steatite.

California

This culture area includes most of what is now the U.S. state of California. It also extends down the Baja Peninsula, which is now part of Mexico. In the east the Sierra Nevada mountain range forms a natural barrier. The lower Coast Range runs parallel to the Pacific coast in the west. The area has an extraordinary range of natural features. Along with the coast and mountains, there are redwood forests, grasslands, wetlands, deserts, and valleys.

The variety of environments provided ample natural resources throughout most of California. As a result, California was one of the most densely populated culture areas of native North America. California included peoples of some 20 language families, including Uto-Aztecan, Penutian, Yokutsan, and Athabaskan. Well-known tribes included the Hupa, Yurok, Pomo, Yuki, Wintun, Maidu, Miwok, and Yana. Many spoke their own unique language.

California Indians lived by hunting, fishing, and collecting wild plant foods. Typically, men hunted and fished while women and children collected plant foods and small game. The most important food was the acorn. The Indians cracked acorns, removed the kernels, and pounded them into flour. Then they treated the flour with hot water to remove the poisonous tannin. They used the flour to make soup, mush, or bread.

Other food resources were spread across the California landscape. Rabbits were common, but in some places deer, elk, and antelope also provided meat. Coastal peoples collected oysters, clams, and other shellfish. Groups living in the foothills and valleys relied on waterfowl and the shoots and seeds of weedy plants and tule (a type of reed). Desert-dwellers collected piñon nuts and mesquite fruit. They also did some farming along the Colorado River.

Most California Indians built permanent villages that they occupied year-round. Small groups routinely left the villages for a few days or weeks to hunt or collect food. In areas with few economic resources, people often lived in roaming groups of 20 to 30 individuals. They gathered together in large groups only temporarily for such activities as antelope drives and piñon-nut harvests. In general, peoples who lived along the coast or rivers enjoyed a more settled life than those living in the desert and foothills.

Traditional house types varied throughout California. The most typical houses were cone- or dome-shaped structures. They consisted of a pole frame covered with grass, brush, bark, or mats of tule. In some places dwellings were covered with earth. In central California some Indians built their homes partly underground. Desert peoples made temporary brush homes as they traveled in search of food. In northern California some Indians built houses of redwood cedar planks, like the neighboring Northwest Coast Indians did.

Because of the mild climate, California peoples wore little clothing. Women typically wore a short skirt made of animal skin or plant fibers, especially bark. Men wore a breechcloth or nothing at all. For protection from wind and rain, both men and women used skin robes. Indians of northern and central California wore moccasins. Peoples of southern California typically wore sandals. Ceremonial dress included elaborate headdresses, skirts, and feathered costumes. Body painting was also popular.

Most of the items made by California Indians centered on their hunting and gathering lifestyle. Men made hunting and fishing equipment such as bows and arrows, throwing sticks, fishing gear, snares, and traps. Women produced nets and baskets for gathering as well as pots and other cooking utensils. Basketry was their greatest skill. They wove baskets so tightly that they would hold the finest seeds—and even water. Some peoples in southeastern California made pottery. This trait arose through contact with nearby Southwest Indians.

Native Californians had different kinds of boats for different bodies of water. The Chumash of southern coastal California made canoes out of cedar planks. These boats were sturdy enough for travel on the ocean. The Chumash used them for hunting seals, porpoises, and sea otters. Peoples living on the bays and lakes used tule balsas, or rafts. Groups along the rivers had flat-bottom dugouts made by hollowing out large logs.

The Northwest Coast

The Northwest Coast culture area is a narrow belt of Pacific coastland and offshore islands. It stretches from what is now the southern border of Alaska to northwestern California. The Pacific Ocean is the western boundary. To the east are the mountains of the Coast Range and the Cascades. In many places the coastal hills or mountains fall steeply to a beach or riverbank. Heavy rains support dense, towering forests that are rich in animal life. This environment provided a wealth of resources for the Indians.

The Northwest Coast was densely populated when Europeans first made landfall in the 1700s. It was home to peoples speaking Athabaskan, Tshimshianic, Salishan, and other languages. Well-known tribes included the Tlingit, Haida, Tsimshian, Kwakiutl, Bella Coola, Nuu-chah-nulth (Nootka), Coast Salish, and Chinook.

Northwest Coast tribes had no pressing food problems. They could get plenty of fish, shellfish, and even whales, seals, and porpoises from the sea and streams. The men built weirs and traps to catch huge hauls of salmon and candlefish as they swam upstream to spawn. The women smoked a year’s supply of salmon and pressed the oil from the candlefish. The Indians used large amounts of this oil, dipping dried foods into it at meals. Other important fish were herring, smelt, cod, and halibut. The Indians also dug clams along the beach and smoked them.

Northwest Coast peoples varied their fish-based diet through hunting and gathering. Families traveled to the mountains, where the men hunted deer, elk, mountain goat, and bear. The women collected bulbs, roots, berries, and seeds.

Most groups built villages near waterways or the coast. Usually home sites and settlements were limited to narrow beaches or terraces because the land fell so steeply to the shore or riverbank. Tribes often organized themselves into groups called “houses.” These were made up of a few dozen to 100 or more related people who lived together for at least part of the year. They shared the rights to particular resources, such as sites for fishing and hunting.

Like other hunting and gathering peoples, Northwest Coast Indians had seasonal settlements. Summer was the time for catching and gathering food and processing it for winter storage. In this season a house usually had several bases of operation. The members divided themselves into small groups that moved between good fishing and berry-picking sites. In the winter most people lived in their kin group’s main building, which was usually in a village on the coast. Most villages had several such buildings, each one the home base of a “house” or extended lineage.

The Indians made their houses with wood from the forests, usually red cedar. The buildings were rectangular and up to 100 feet (30.5 meters) long. The Indians built a framework of cedar posts and attached planks to form the walls and roof. The planks could be taken down, loaded onto canoes, and moved from one site to another. Most homes had a central fire pit.

The inner bark of the cedar served as raw material for garments. The women pounded the bark into shreds and made fringed aprons and short capes for themselves and raincoats for the men. They wove a cedar-fiber man’s hat with a brim to shed the heavy rains. The children and the men went without clothing in the summer. Winter garb included a robe of sea-otter skins or a blanket. The women used cedar-bark fiber, mountain-goat wool, dogs’ hair, and feathers in the blankets.

Woodworking was the outstanding skill of the Northwest. Boatbuilders hollowed logs with fire to make the canoes they paddled in the streams as well as the big seagoing whaling canoes. Other woodworkers steamed and bent planks to make boxes, tying the edges together with spruce roots. These boxes were built to hold the huge winter stores of dried food and were even used for hot-rock cooking.

Many of the items made by the woodworkers were artistic as well as functional. The woodworkers carved faces of animals, birds, and people on boxes, house fronts, house posts, boats, and grave posts. They made wooden helmets and masks for ceremonial dances and dramatic performances. Most spectacular of the artworks was the totem pole. These tall, carved posts were erected by important men among certain tribes of British Columbia and Alaska. The carved and painted faces on a pole represented the owner’s totem animals or birds. These animals were his mythical ancestors who gave him power in war, hunting, or whaling.

Northwest craftsmen also had some native copper to work with. They made some of their arrowheads from it, as well as copper knives for weapons of war. They engraved designs on a plaque, called a “copper,” that served in the place of a valuable bank note. One famous copper was valued at 7,500 blankets.

Another great skill of the Northwest Indians was weaving. The women wove long, ribbonlike strands of inner cedar bark into mats and beautiful baskets.

The Plateau

This culture area is named for the Columbia Plateau. This geographic region lies between the Rocky Mountains on the east and the Cascade Range on the west. It includes parts of present-day Montana, Idaho, Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia. The Plateau is drained by two great river systems, the Fraser and the Columbia. The landscape includes rolling hills, high flatlands, gorges, and mountains. Most precipitation falls in the mountains, leaving other areas rather dry. Some mountain slopes are forested, but grassland and desert are more common in the region.

Most Indians of the Plateau traditionally spoke languages of the Salishan, Sahaptin, Kutenai, and Modoc and Klamath families. Tribes included the Flathead, Nez Percé, Yakama, Kutenai, Modoc and Klamath, Spokan, Kalispel (or Pend d’Oreille), Coeur d’Alene, Walla Walla, and Umatilla. Early European explorers incorrectly used the term Flathead to identify all Salishan-speaking peoples. Some of these groups flattened the foreheads of their babies with cradleboards. The people now called the Flathead did not do so, however.

The Plateau Indians relied wholly on wild foods. Fishing was the most important food source. The rivers were abundant in salmon, trout, eels, and other fish. The Indians dried fish on wooden racks to preserve them for the winter food supply. They supplemented the fish catch by hunting deer, elk, bear, caribou, and small game. In the early 1700s some Plateau groups started to hunt bison after receiving horses from their neighbors in the Great Basin.

Wild plant foods were another important part of the diet. Especially important were roots and bulbs, including the starchy bulb of the camas flower. Plateau Indians also gathered bitterroot, onions, wild carrots, and parsnips and cooked them in earth ovens heated by hot stones. They harvested huckleberries, blueberries, and other berries as well.

Plateau peoples lived in permanent villages in the winter. A village was home to between a few hundred and a thousand people. Villages were generally located on waterways, often at rapids or narrows where fish were plentiful during the winter. During the rest of the year the Indians divided their time between their villages and camps set up in good hunting and gathering spots. When horses became available, some groups became more nomadic. They stayed in camps as they crossed the Rocky Mountains to hunt bison on the Plains.

Village houses were of two main types, the pit house and the mat-covered surface house. Pit houses were usually circular and typically had a pit 3–6 feet (1–2 meters) deep. The roof was usually cone-shaped and supported by a wooden framework. The smoke hole in the top was also the entrance to the house. A person climbed onto the roof and then down through the smoke hole on a ladder or notched log.

In the southern Plateau the pit house was eventually replaced by the mat-covered surface house. These homes were formed by leaning together poles and covering them with grass or tule mats. Some of these houses were cone-shaped and lightly built, like tepees. They typically sheltered one family. Other mat-covered houses had an A-frame design. Much larger and more heavily built, these dwellings housed multiple families.

In their camps Plateau peoples used a variety of houses, ranging from small, cone-shaped lodges to simple windbreaks. Groups that traveled to the Plains to hunt bison typically used tepees.

Plateau Indians traditionally wore a bark breechcloth or apron and a bark poncho. In winter men wrapped their legs with fur; women had leggings of hemp. They also used robes or blankets of rabbit or other fur. By the 1800s, through contact with the Plains Indians, all Plateau peoples used leather garments. Men wore deer- or elk-skin breechcloths, leggings, and shirts, and women wore leggings and dresses. Fur caps and feathered headdresses also appeared because of the Plains influence.

The Plateau is notable for the wide variety of materials and technologies used by its peoples. Plateau Indians were continuously exposed to new items and ideas through trade with surrounding culture areas—the Plains, the Great Basin, the Northwest Coast, and California. They excelled at adapting others’ technologies to their own purposes. For example, after adopting use of the horse, some tribes became well respected for their breeding programs and fine herds.

Plateau peoples navigated the rivers in dugout or bark canoes. Long-distance water travel was limited, however, by the many river rapids. Plateau fishermen used spears, traps, and nets. Communities also built and held in common large fish weirs made of stone or wood. Hunters used a bow and arrows and sometimes a short spear in their pursuit of deer, elk, bears, and other prey. In the winter they wore long and narrow snowshoes for tracking animals.

The Southwest

The Southwest culture area lies between the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Madre of Mexico. It covers most of the U.S. states of Arizona and New Mexico as well as northern Mexico. It also includes small parts of Utah, Colorado, and California. The north is a cool, high plateau cut by canyons. In the south are mountains and plains. The climate is very dry, but in most places the soil is fertile.

Southwest Indians spoke languages from several different families. The Hokan-speaking Yuman peoples were the westernmost residents of the region. The Tohono O’odham and the closely related Pima lived in the southwestern part of the culture area and spoke Uto-Aztecan languages. The Pueblo Indians lived in what are now northeastern Arizona and northwestern New Mexico. They spoke Tanoan, Keresan, Kiowa-Tanoan, and Penutian languages. The Navajo and the Apache were relative latecomers to the region. They migrated from Canada to the Southwest, arriving before ad 1500. They spoke Athabaskan languages.

In the dry Southwest a tribe’s nearness to water had a strong influence on its way of life. Groups who settled along the Colorado River or other major waterways could rely almost entirely on farming for food. Like the Ancestral Pueblo who came before, they used irrigation to water their fields. They built check dams to slow the runoff from the sporadic but heavy rains. In some places they made stone channels to carry water from stream to field.

Southwest farmers traditionally planted corn, beans, squash, and cotton. They also raised turkeys. Later, the Spaniards brought them wheat, onions, watermelons, peaches, and apricots. They kept food stored so they would not go hungry if a drought came.

Tribes who lived away from waterways also did some farming, but they relied more on hunting and gathering. Game in the Southwest included deer, antelope, and rabbits. Among the wild plant foods were fruits, seeds, and mescal, a desert plant that provided fruit, juice, and fibers. When food was scarce, the nomadic Navajo and the Apache raided Pueblo settlements for food. After the Spanish introduced sheep and goats, many Southwest Indians began tending flocks of these animals.

The most remarkable dwellings in the Southwest were those of the Pueblo Indians. The Pueblo lived in villages of apartment houses modeled after the cliff dwellings of the Ancestral Pueblo. They were made from stone and adobe (sun-dried clay). When Spanish explorers saw these huge houses in the 1500s, they called them pueblos, from the Spanish word for village. Pueblo villages were located in river valleys and on high, rocky plateaus called mesas.

Pueblo homes had several stories and many rooms. Each family might have several rooms that they used as people do today, for food preparation, sleeping, or storage. To keep out enemies, the Indians made the ground story without doors or windows. The next story was set back the width of a room, and the roof of the lower story provided a “front yard” for the people of the second story. Higher stories were set back the same way, giving a terraced effect. The residents used ladders to reach their apartments. Special underground rooms called kivas were set aside for religious purposes.

The settlements of the Yumans, the Pima, and the Tohono O’odham differed depending on a tribe’s access to water. Villages near rivers had dome-shaped houses made of log frameworks covered with wattle-and-daub or thatch. The Indians lived in these villages year-round. Tribes who lived along seasonal waterways—which flowed only after summer storms—divided their time between summer villages and dry-season camps. Summer settlements were near their crops. They consisted of dome-shaped houses built of thatch. During the rest of the year they lived at higher elevations where fresh water and game were more readily available. Their shelters then were lean-tos and windbreaks.

When they arrived in the Southwest, the Navajo and the Apache moved from place to place. Gradually the Navajo adopted some of the cultural traits of the Pueblo Indians, settling into villages and learning to farm. The Navajo made round houses, called hogans, of stone, logs, and earth. The Apache remained mostly nomadic. They built brush-covered wickiups and skin tepees for shelter.

Rare among the North American Indians, the Pueblo wove most of their clothing from cotton they grew themselves. They began raising cotton and making cloth by the ad 700s. The woman’s dress was a long strip of cloth that wrapped across the body and fastened on the right shoulder. A colorful, fringed belt held the garment at the waist. The man wore a breechcloth of white cotton cloth or a short woven kilt with a colorful border. Both men and women wore soft shoes or sandals.

The Navajo and the Apache traditionally wore clothing made of animal skins and plant fibers. After the Europeans came, the Navajo began to make clothes with cloth bought from traders.

During their centuries of living together in villages the Pueblo Indians improved their skills. Pueblo women made beautiful, strong pottery. Each village, and sometimes each family, had its own styles, colors, and designs. The women had been skilled at basketry since early times. They wove twigs, grass, and fibers from yucca and other tough desert plants into baskets, trays, mats, cradleboards, and sandals.

The men were the weavers among the Pueblo. They also did the work of tanning and making shoes and other leather goods. They made bows and arrows, stone knives, and tools. They drilled and polished turquoise and other stones to make beads. After the Mexicans taught them silverwork, they created silver jewelry set with these stones.

The Navajo were good at learning the skills of their neighbors and adding improvements and individual touches. They learned weaving from the Pueblo Indians, and their blankets and rugs became more valuable than the Pueblo products. The women did all the work—from shearing the sheep to the final weaving. Navajo men learned silverwork from Mexican artists. They adapted designs from many sources, especially the patterns stamped on Spanish bridles and saddles.

Middle America

This culture area extends southward from what is now northern Mexico to Honduras. The heartland of Middle America is the central valley of Mexico. It is enclosed by mountains: the two Sierra Madre ranges on the east and west and a volcanic range that links them. In the southeastern part of Middle America lie the Chiapas-Guatemala highlands. Along the coasts are lowlands. There is tremendous variety in ecology, climate, and soil, all of which influenced the cultures of the Indians who lived there.

Middle American peoples spoke hundreds of languages. Most of them belonged to one of three language groups: the Mayan (or Macro-Mayan), the Oto-Manguean, or the Uto-Aztecan. Each of these groups included a number of language families. Mayan peoples lived in southeastern Middle America; the exception was the Huastec of the northeast. The people known as the Maya developed a great civilization that peaked in about 900 and then quickly declined. Speakers of Oto-Manguean languages occupied a wide area of Middle America between Uto-Aztecan peoples to the north and east and Mayan and other peoples to the south. Two Oto-Manguean peoples, the Mixtec and the Zapotec, had large, powerful kingdoms at the time of the Spanish conquest in 1519. The dominant group in Middle America when the Spanish arrived, however, was an Uto-Aztecan people, the Aztec. Through conquest, the Aztec had created an empire with a population of 5 to 6 million people.

The Indians of Middle America planted a great many crops, of which corn, beans, and squashes were the most important. Others included chili peppers, tomatoes, sweet potatoes, cassava, cotton, tobacco, cacao, pineapples, papayas, peanuts, and avocados. In some places the Indians used irrigation. A unique feature of Middle American agriculture was the use of chinampas. These artificial islands were built up above the surface of a lake using mud from the lake floor. After settling, the chinampa was a rich planting bed.

The diet was similar throughout Middle America. The Indians boiled dried corn to soften the hull and then ground it into cornmeal. They used dough made of cornmeal and water to make thin, flat bread called tortillas. The tortillas were eaten with sauces prepared from chili peppers and tomatoes, along with boiled beans. To this were added other crops grown locally. Luxury foods included cocoa drinks, meats, and fish. Meat came from small game or from the only two important domestic animals, the dog and the turkey.

With their long history of farming, Middle American peoples established villages earlier than most other Indians. Through the years, as their farming skills improved, their settlements grew larger. Some developed into great cities, such as Tenochtitlán, the Aztec capital. Tenochtitlán covered more than 5 square miles (13 square kilometers) and had about 140,000 to 200,000 residents at its height. When the Spanish arrived in the early 1500s, however, most of the Indians still lived in fairly small rural villages.

Houses in the villages typically were made of upright poles, sometimes covered with mud or brush. The roof was thatched. Among the Aztec, up to three peasant families occupied a small multiroom house divided into apartments for each family. The houses were usually placed within a courtyard fenced with cactus or adobe walls. The upper and middle classes lived in palatial houses of stone, plaster, and concrete.

Middle American Indians wore different kinds of clothing depending on their social status. Commoners wore simple clothing woven from maguey, a hard fiber taken from the agave plant. The upper classes wore brightly colored cotton garments that were often lavishly dyed and decorated. Priests and nobles adorned themselves with jewelry and sometimes feather headdresses.

The tools of the Middle American peoples were made mostly of chipped and ground stone. In farming, the Indians used stone axes to clear vegetation and wooden digging tools to work the soil. They ground corn into dough on milling stones called manos and metates.

Stone and concrete architecture was a notable skill of the Middle American Indians. Another was woodworking. They made large dugout canoes, sculpture, drums, stools, and a great variety of household items. They worked metals—gold, copper, and sometimes silver—to produce jewelry and some tools. Their ceramics included pottery, figurines, and musical instruments. Among their other crafts were stone sculpture and basket making.

Central America and the Northern Andes

This culture area covers the southern part of Central America, the northern coast of South America, and the islands of the Caribbean Sea. It includes parts of what are now the countries of Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, and Ecuador as well as Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic, Haiti, Jamaica, Cuba, and other island countries. The area lies entirely within the tropics. Lowlands tend to be hot, but elevation tempers the climate on some of the islands and in the mountains of Central America, Colombia, and Venezuela. Places with heavy rainfall have dense forests. Dry regions have little more than sparse grass.

Many different peoples lived in the lands surrounding the Caribbean Sea and in the northern Andes. When the Spanish came, the group with the highest degree of central political organization was the Chibcha of Colombia. Other peoples included the Tairona, Cenú (Sinú), Quimbaya, Chocó, Dabeiba, Páez, and Pijao of Colombia; the Manteño, Colorado, and Puruhá of Ecuador; and the Jirajara and Caquetío of northern Venezuela. On the largest of the Caribbean islands, the Greater Antilles, lived the Arawak, who had driven the Ciboney to a few isolated places on the western parts of the main islands. The Carib lived on the smaller islands known as the Lesser Antilles. The peoples of southern Central America included the Chorotega, Miskito, Guaymí, and Kuna. Their languages were many and varied, but most belonged to the Macro-Chibchan, Arawakan, and Cariban language groups.

Farming was the main food source for most of these Indians, though some relied entirely on hunting, fishing, and gathering. Farming groups practiced slash-and-burn agriculture. They cleared the forest in an area and then set fires to burn away any wild plants. After planting crops there for a few years, they shifted to a new plot of land. About a decade later they might return to the old site and begin again. This type of farming produced abundant food without great effort and was environmentally sound. Staple crops included cassava, corn, sweet potatoes, and beans. In some places the Indians also grew tropical fruits and cotton.

Some peoples improved on the basic slash-and-burn pattern. Terracing was a method used in places with steep land. The Indians leveled off the slopes to make a series of stepped fields. In addition, some groups used irrigation.

The size and form of communities among these Indians was linked to their lifestyles. For example, peoples who depended on fishing or gathering had the smallest houses and most widely spread settlements. Peoples who farmed intensively established the most densely populated villages with the largest and most permanent houses. Although houses varied in size and shape, virtually all had palm-thatched roofs and walls of thatch or adobe. To protect themselves from raids, some groups erected palisades or walls around their larger towns, many of which included palaces and temples. The Antillean Arawak were unusual in having communities with as many as 3,000 people. They were also the only group to build ball courts and large ceremonial plazas.

Clothing was simple. It usually consisted of no more than a breechcloth for men and a short skirt for women. Most of the Indians adorned their bodies richly, however, with painted designs and tattooing. They also wore a wide variety of jewelry and feathered ornaments.

Central America and the Northern Andes had many tribes, and crafts differed among them. A wide variety of baskets was made, usually by women. In most regions the Indians wove cotton or wool cloth on looms, but in some places they made bark cloth. This nonwoven fabric was produced from the inner bark of certain trees and decorated by scratching or painting. The hammock apparently originated in this area and was widespread. Little other furniture was used.

Nearly all of the peoples in the area made at least some pottery. A few groups—notably the Chibcha, Chorotega, Guaymí, and Nicarao—produced exceptionally fine and varied ceramics. The same few groups carved jade and other stones and worked copper and gold. Abundant ornaments were made of metal and of precious stones. Some of these were worn, and others were buried with distinguished men.

Land transportation was by foot. The Indians traded throughout much of the area without the benefit of either draft or pack animals. Dugout canoes, often large, provided transportation from island to island and along rivers. (See also Central American and Northern Andean Indian.)

The Central Andes

The Central Andes culture area reaches from what is now southern Ecuador to southern Chile. It also encompasses parts of present-day Peru, Bolivia, and Argentina. The landscape is dominated by the peaks of the Andes Mountains, some more than 20,000 feet (6,100 meters) high. Between the eastern and western Andean ranges is a high plateau. The weather on the plateau differs less between seasons than it does between day and night. It has hot tropical sunshine during the day but freezing temperatures at night. On the west the Andes drop down to a desert that stretches for thousands of miles along the Pacific coast.

The Indians of the Central Andes learned how to make the most of this harsh environment. With their close familiarity with the land and its possibilities, they were able to support large cities. At the time of European contact, the Central Andes had the densest population south of Mexico. It also was home to the most advanced native civilization in South America—the Inca.

Controlling a vast empire, the Inca ruled some 12 million people of more than 100 ethnic groups. When the Spanish conquered the empire in 1532, most peoples spoke variations of Quechua, the language of the Inca. Another major language spoken in the empire was Aymara. Before the Inca conquest, the Aymara Indians had several different states in what are now Peru and Bolivia. The greatest of the many states and societies incorporated into the Inca Empire was the kingdom of Chimú in northern Peru. Other groups brought into the empire included the Chincha, Chanca, Atacama, and Diaguita. In the southern part of the region were some peoples who remained outside the Inca Empire. Among them were the Huarpe of northwestern Argentina and the Araucanians of south-central Chile.

Andean civilizations flourished because intensive agriculture provided an ample food supply. Farmers raised corn, beans, squash, potatoes, quinoa, sweet potatoes, cassava, peanuts, cotton, peppers, tobacco, coca, and dozens of other plants. They developed thousands of varieties of their crops to suit different growing conditions. For example, they raised certain kinds of tubers and grains that thrived at high altitudes. Most of these specialized crops still grow only in the Andes. The Indians also domesticated llamas and alpacas to carry loads and to supply wool and sometimes meat.

The Inca’s huge state-controlled irrigation works made possible the production of huge agricultural surpluses. The surplus was controlled by the emperor and distributed among the government, religious leaders, and the people according to a standard formula. Andean peoples developed freeze-drying, a method for preserving meat, fish, and tubers so they kept indefinitely and weighed much less than the original food. They filled thousands of warehouses with these extra food supplies.

Villages in the Central Andes first developed in coastal valleys where water was available for irrigation. Settlements then spread to the high Andean plateau, where some grew into cities. The largest city was Cuzco, the Inca capital. It had tens of thousands of inhabitants, perhaps as many as 200,000. Most settlements in the Central Andes were small villages, however.

A typical house in the Central Andes was small, rectangular, and built of stone or adobe. The most remarkable architecture was reserved for public buildings. The Inca built massive stone palaces, temples, and fortresses without the use of mortar. Some of the walls still stand. They fitted the stones so tightly that a knife blade cannot be inserted into most seams. In Cuzco, the religious building called the Koricancha had finely crafted walls sheathed in hundreds of silver and gold plates. Its roof was covered with a mixture of thatch and gold “straws” so that it glittered in the sunlight. The name Koricancha means “Golden Enclosure” in Quechua. The building is also known as the Temple of the Sun. The most famous Inca ruins today lie to the northwest of Cuzco at Machu Picchu, which probably served as a royal retreat.

Andean peoples wore garments made of woven cloth. The most common materials were llama and alpaca wool and cotton. Only the nobles could wear clothes made with the silky wool of the vicuña, a small wild relative of the llama. Men wore a breechcloth and a sleeveless tunic, while women wore long skirts that wrapped around the body. Both men and women wore cloaks. Nobles adorned themselves with gold and silver jewelry.

The Central Andean peoples placed a high value on craftsmanship. Their technology differed little from that of surrounding areas, but their products were exceptional for their quality and variety. The most outstanding items were made for the government and the nobility by highly skilled artisans.

Notable crafts of these Indians included metalworking, weaving, and pottery making. In addition to gold and silver ornaments, metalworkers made knives, axes, chisels, needles, and other tools from copper and bronze. Weavers made not only clothing but also colorful textiles and tapestries, often with complicated patterns. Potters produced both everyday wares and fine ceremonial pieces for religious uses. Central Andean peoples also did some carving in stone, wood, and bone.

The Rainforest

The Rainforest culture area is dominated by the vast basin of the Amazon River. It includes all of what are now the Guianas (Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana), most of Brazil, and parts of Peru, Colombia, Ecuador, Bolivia, and Venezuela. The climate is hot, rainy, and humid. The dense tropical rainforests found in much of the area are home to an extraordinary variety of plants and animals. There are also swamps, dry forests, and savannas.

The Indians of the Rainforest spoke hundreds of languages. Tribes belonging to the Arawakan and Cariban language families lived mainly north of the Amazon River. Arawakan-speaking peoples included the coastal Arawak as well as the Achagua and Palicur. Cariban speakers included the Barama River Carib, Taulipang, and Makushí. Tupian speakers were widespread south of the Amazon. Among them were the Tupinambá, Mundurukú, and Kawaíb. Speakers of Ge languages lived mainly in what is now central Brazil. They included the Timbira, Kayapó, Suyá, Xavante, Xerente, and Kaingang.

Rainforest peoples combined farming with hunting, fishing, and gathering. They prepared their agricultural fields by slashing and burning the thick growth. Their crops included cassava and other tubers and roots, corn, beans, squash, and tropical vegetables and fruits. The cassava they grew was mostly the bitter type, which contains a poison. The Indians squeezed out the poison and made flour for baking bread.

Tribes who lived along the Amazon and other rivers had the best soil and farmed intensively. They fished and hunted to supplement the diet. Away from the rivers, the Indians relied more on hunting and on gathering wild fruits, berries, and nuts. Game animals included deer, tapirs, peccaries, monkeys, birds, rodents, and turtles.

The immense Rainforest area was sparsely populated. Clusters of villages existed only along the coast and the main rivers, particularly the Amazon. Most of the tribes were neither entirely settled nor entirely nomadic. The ample food supply allowed farming peoples to remain in the same place for many years. When the soil became unproductive, however, they abandoned their villages and established new ones. Some tribes lived in villages during the rainy season and went hunting during dry spells.

Houses in the Rainforest were typically made of log frames covered with palm leaves or grass. Some peoples built large communal houses called malocas. These held 200 or more individuals, even an entire tribe. In marshy and swampy areas, tribes built houses on stilts. Often hammocks were the only furniture.

In the hot, humid climate, most Rainforest Indians wore little or no clothing. They preferred to paint the body with designs or pictures of animals. They also adorned themselves with jewelry and colorful headdresses made from the feathers of tropical birds. Tribes that did wear clothes made cotton tunics, skirts, and belts.

The Rainforest Indians made almost all of their utensils and tools from plant or animal material. In much of the area stones for making axes, arrowheads, and other objects were scarce. Tribes in the west made some metal items. They were influenced by the skilled metalwork of the neighboring Andean cultures.

Rainforest peoples were very inventive. They developed many types of harpoons, arrows, traps, snares, and blowguns. In fishing they released poisons into streams to stun or kill the fish without making them inedible. Using palm leaves and shafts of bamboo, they made many kinds of baskets and hampers as well as sifters, traps, fans, mats, and other household items. Settled groups produced pottery, but nomadic peoples more often used gourds and calabashes as storage containers and drinking cups. Because these Indians had little use for clothing, their looms were used mostly for weaving such items as hammocks and baby slings. Throughout the region, tribes built rafts and dugout canoes for river travel.

Marginal Regions

This culture area encompasses the parts of South America where the land is not good for farming. It includes much of the south and a few isolated places in the north. The Marginal Regions were remote from the centers of great cultural development. The inhabitants were nomadic hunters, gatherers, and fishers who took advantage of the scarce natural resources available to them.

Few Indians lived in the Marginal Regions. The rugged terrain of what is now southern Chile was home to the Chono, Alacaluf, and Yámana. The Tehuelche, Puelche, Charrúa, and Querandí occupied the steppes and plains of Argentina. To the north, in the dry plains region called the Gran Chaco, lived the Abipón, Wichí, Vilela, and other Indians who spoke Guaycuruan languages. The region was also home to peoples who spoke other languages, including the Wichí, Vilela, Lengua, and Zamuco (Ayoreo). In the tropical rainforests of Brazil and neighboring countries, some peoples maintained a nomadic lifestyle even as their neighbors settled into farming villages. Among them were the Makú, Guahibo, Aché, Sirionó, and Botocudo. Some rainforest groups that anthropologists have traditionally considered to be nomadic hunter-gatherers, however, such as the Nambikwara, grew some crops and were nomadic for only part of the year. Some forest peoples lived nomadic lives that centered on the rivers. These tribes spent most of their time in canoes. Among them were the Yaruro, Mura, and Guató.

Food sources varied throughout the Marginal Regions. In southern Chile the Indians fished, hunted seals and sea otters, and gathered shellfish. They also used whales that had been stranded on the beaches. Throughout the steppes and plains the Indians hunted guanaco (a wild relative of the llama and alpaca), rhea (the South American ostrich), and smaller animals. They also gathered some roots and herbs. The peoples of the Gran Chaco relied mainly on plant foods, such as edible pods, fruits, berries, and tubers. Some groups fished and hunted as well. Tropical forest nomads made their livelihood by hunting, fishing, and gathering wild plants. Peoples known as aquatic nomads lived most of their lives in canoes, fishing and hunting the reptiles called caimans and other water animals.

The Indians cooked meat and fish directly on coals or put them into earth ovens. The ovens were lined with heated stones and covered with earth and coals. The Chono boiled food by placing heated stones in tightly woven baskets.

Because the nomads moved constantly, they did not establish permanent villages. Instead, they lived and traveled in bands. Depending on the available food resources, a band could be large or very small.

The Indians of the Marginal Regions used caves for shelter if they were available. In the colder climate of the south, the island tribes of Chile and the nomads of the Gran Chaco made domed huts of bent poles covered with bark, skins, or brush. When the people moved on they left the frame for others to use, taking only the skin coverings with them. Some peoples of the southern plains made a skin-covered hut known as a toldo. The Nambikwara of Brazil used a lean-to in the dry season or camped under trees, sleeping on fire-warmed ground.

People of the Marginal Regions had little clothing. The forest hunters, such as the Sirionó and Nambikwara, wore nothing. The southern nomads wore robes and moccasins made from guanaco skin. Featherwork, armbands and leg bands, necklaces, and body painting were common, as were earplugs, nose plugs, and lip plugs.

Because they were nomads, the hunters and gatherers had few material goods and relatively simple technology. They hunted with clubs, bows and arrows, and bolas. A bola consisted of stone weights attached to long, slender ropes. The hunter threw the bola around the neck or legs of a guanaco or rhea. After the Spanish brought horses, bolas became very important because the hunters could swing them easily on horseback. Among the island tribes of Chile, hunters harpooned seals, sea lions, and porpoises from bark canoes.

Some Indians of the Marginal Regions wove fabric by hand. They used yarn spun from native cotton and palm fibers. Later, some peoples learned to weave with looms. They move long strips of fabric for making armbands and leg bands and other decorations. Netting was used for making fishnets and bags for carrying goods. Basketry was common, and hunters of the steppes and plains used containers made of skins. Pottery was little used because pots were difficult to transport. (See also South American nomadic Indians.)

Families

The most important social group for most Indian peoples was the family. The concept of family meant different things to different tribes. It could mean a nuclear family—husband, wife, and children. Or it could mean an extended family, which also included other relatives such as grandparents, aunts, uncles, or cousins.

The clan was a larger family group. Members of a clan might live in different villages, but they claimed descent from a common ancestor. Inheritance and relationship could be traced through either the male or female line. Clan members had certain obligations toward one another, such as providing hospitality to kin from other villages. All members of a clan considered themselves to be related. Therefore, men and women were required to marry outside their clan.

Bands

Groups of Indian families joined to form bands. The families in a band lived, worked, and traveled together. Membership was generally based on a combination of kinship, marriage, and friendship. The size of a band depended on the available food resources. In places where food was particularly scarce, a band could consist of as few as 10 or 12 people. In other places a band might have as many as several hundred people. Bands sometimes came together for ceremonies or a group hunt.

Tribes

Another form of social organization was the tribe. A tribe was made up of a number of bands or neighboring villages. Tribal members were usually linked by ties of kinship, language, and cultural traditions. A tribe was led by one or more people, who were usually chosen because of their ability and wisdom. These leaders, sometimes called chiefs, advised the people and attempted to settle their disputes. War chiefs led raids or military campaigns.

A group called the tribal council discussed and acted upon important matters. Like the concept of the family, the concept of the tribal council meant different things to different tribes. In many tribes it comprised the tribe’s leaders and elders and might include men, women, or both. In other tribes it consisted of all of the adults or all of the adult women and married men.

Confederacies

Groups of tribes sometimes joined together to form confederacies. These alliances were often very complex political organizations. They generally took their name from the most powerful member tribe—for example, the Iroquois Confederacy and the Creek Confederacy. The usual reasons for forming a confederacy were to create peace in a region or to fight a common enemy.

The Iroquois Confederacy was the most elaborate political organization among the Northern American Indians. In about 1570 the Mohawk, Seneca, Onondaga, Oneida, and Cayuga tribes (all of the Iroquoian language family) created this confederacy to promote peace among themselves. The English called this league the Five Nations, and later the Six Nations, after the Tuscarora were admitted in 1722. The Iroquois called it the Brethren of the Longhouse.

Chiefdoms

Tribes were typically characterized by political and social equality among their members. The exceptions included the tribes called chiefdoms, which had social classes with membership based on birth. The ruling class consisted of chiefs, who governed during peacetime, and war leaders. Though war leaders usually achieved their position on the basis of personal accomplishment, a chief inherited his power. Chiefdoms were common in the Southeast, Central America, and the Northern Andes. Northwest Coast Indians also lived in hierarchical societies with an elite class of hereditary chiefs. They affirmed social status through ceremonies called potlatches, in which the host distributed property and gifts to guests according to their social rank.

States and Empires

Some chiefdoms were so successful that they grew larger and more complex. These societies were known as states, and they often governed a very large territory and population. Power was concentrated in the hands of an absolute ruler. Everyone else was ranked in a hierarchy of social classes. States typically sponsored large public works that smaller societies could not organize, such as road systems that were hundreds of miles long, major irrigation systems, and the building of enormous monuments.

In the Americas, as in the Old World, early states were able to expand and conquer neighboring groups through a combination of military might and an official state religion. The Aztec built up an empire that covered much of Mexico. The emperor wielded both political and religious authority. Below him were the priests and nobles, who helped to administer the empire. There were also classes of warriors, merchants, and artisans. At the bottom of society were serfs, indentured servants, and slaves.

In South America the Inca ruled an empire that extended from present-day Ecuador to central Chile. The Inca believed their emperor to be a god on Earth.

Language Contacts

Before the arrival of Europeans, interaction between tribes resulted in the sharing of words and grammar in their languages. After Europeans arrived, contact of Indian languages with the settlers’ languages led to more borrowing. In Middle America, for example, Indians have been taking words from Spanish since the Spanish conquest. Often the borrowed words are conjunctions and adverbs—for example, ya, meaning “already”; pero, “but”; hasta, “until”; y, “and”; and o, “or.”

The settlers, in turn, adopted many Indian words that are still used today. Many place names, such as Massachusetts and Seattle, came from Indian languages. The Europeans commonly borrowed Indian names for native American plants and animals that lacked names in their own languages. The Spanish spoken in Middle America has taken many words from local languages, especially Nahuatl, the language of the Aztec. Many of the words borrowed into Spanish from Nahuatl have since passed into English. Among them are chili, chile, or chilli (Spanish chile), avocado (Spanish aguacate), chocolate, peyote, coyote, tomato (Spanish tomate), ocelot (Spanish ocelote), and guacamole.

In a few cases, language contact gave rise to a pidgin language that Indians and European traders used to communicate with each other. These combined words from Indian and European languages. Among the pidgin languages were the Chinook Jargon of the Northwest and the Mobilian of the Southeast. Indians of the Great Plains worked out a sign language so they could communicate with each other even if they spoke different languages. They could convey much information with hand gestures.

Writing

The only true writing system in the Americas before European contact was developed by the Maya. Mayan writing was based on symbols called glyphs. Some glyphs were pictures that represented animals, people, and objects of daily life. Other glyphs represented parts of words or sounds. The Maya carved records on stone and also wrote them on a type of paper. The records noted events in the lives of Mayan rulers and their families. Other Middle American peoples, including the Aztec, also kept records. But unlike the Mayan system, Aztec writing could represent only numbers, dates, and names, not all speech.

North of Mexico, Indians used picture writing until Europeans arrived. Picture writing aided memory and helped to communicate ideas. It is found widely scattered over North America, where picture writings were painted or carved on rock cliffs, on walls of caves, and on huge boulders. These petroglyphs doubtless carried a message when they were made. Picture writing was also done on portable materials. Many Plains Indians kept records of the past by drawing pictures or symbols of important events on bison hides. Such records are known as winter counts.

Written language arose in the north after European contact. Perhaps the most famous system is that invented in the 1800s by Sequoyah, a Cherokee. It is not an alphabet but a syllabary, in which the symbols stand for sounds in the Cherokee language. To create the symbols, he adapted letters from English, Greek, and Hebrew.

Shamans and Priests

People who had special powers to contact the spirits were known as shamans. They could be men or women of any age from childhood onward. Among many tribes they held a prominent place in society. Shamans acquired their supernatural power through a personal experience, such as a vision or a dream. They usually underwent initiation rituals as well.

Indians believed that shamans could control the weather, foretell the future, bring success in warfare and food gathering, and ease childbirth. But the main task of shamans was healing the sick. For this reason, they were sometimes called medicine men or medicine women. Some treatments included the use of roots and herbs as medicines. But Indians believed that some illnesses could be cured only by removing a foreign object from the body. In these cases the shaman often “removed” a symbolic object, such as a stone or arrowhead, through sleight of hand.

In some tribes shamans were organized into medicine societies. An example was the Iroquois False Face Society, whose members wore masks carved from living trees. In spring and fall they went from house to house shaking turtle-shell rattles and chanting to drive away evil spirits that caused disease. Another example was the Grand Medicine Society, or Midewiwin, of the Ojibwa.

Priests played an important role in the religious life of some tribes. Unlike shamans, who usually worked with individuals, priests performed public ceremonies. Among the Inca, Maya, Aztec, and some Southeast Indians, priests were political as well as spiritual leaders.

Ceremonies

Villages and tribes used dances and other ceremonies to seek help from spiritual forces. Many of these ceremonies remain a feature of tribal life. Usually men and women conducted different kinds of ceremonies. Because women were usually in charge of farming and gathering plants, their ceremonies were often meant to ensure that harvests would be good. Such women’s groups often met as part of the normal workday, in fields or while foraging. They would plan and organize their ceremonies during these times and then perform the rituals in front of the whole community. Men, on the other hand, tended to be involved in ceremonies meant to ensure successful hunting, raiding, and defense. Usually men had a house where secret societies met, sacred objects were kept, and the ceremonies were taught to boys.

Important ceremonies could last for many days and were usually preceded by periods of fasting and prayer. The most spectacular Plains ceremony was the Sun Dance, which was an expression of thanks to the participants’ spirit guardians. Corn dances were held by all farming tribes. One of the most elaborate corn festivals was the Green Corn Ceremony, or Busk, held by the Creek and other Southeast peoples. After feasting on the new corn, dancing, drinking the “black drink” (which made one vomit), and carrying on ceremonies for several days, the tribe began a new year by destroying old equipment and getting new. They extinguished fires and lit new ones from a ceremonial flame. Old enmities were forgotten and wrongdoers forgiven.

State-level societies generally made sacrifices, or offerings, to gain favor of the gods. The sacrifice could be an object, a plant, an animal, or a human. The Aztec sacrificed thousands of people each year by offering their hearts to the sun god. Some Inca rituals also included human sacrifice.

Visual Arts

Many Indian art objects were meant to be functional—for example, to act as a container or a piece of clothing. As in all cultures, art often reflected the social organization or values of the people who produced it. For example, societies with a strong military found their major art forms in the world of weaponry and battle gear. The Plains, Aztec, and Inca civilizations all reflect the dominant warrior culture in their arts. Cultures in which priests were in charge of religion, such as the Maya, made more ceremonial art than those in which religion was the business of the individual.

Indians worked with the materials native to their homelands. Thus, they produced art that reflected their environment. Those peoples living in heavily forested regions, for example, became gifted sculptors in wood. In places where clay was plentiful, the Indians became skillful potters. Tribes living in the grasslands became fine basket weavers. Other natural materials mastered by the Indians include jade, turquoise, shell, metals, stone, birch bark, porcupine quills, deer hair, feathers, elk teeth, bear and cougar claws, llama dung, and sea lion whiskers. All were used by artists to lend color or texture to their work.

Some Indians took their decorative designs from natural forms. Others preferred geometric patterns. Some unique designs resulted from artists trying to re-create sights seen during dreams or visions. Certain symbols appeared in the art of various peoples, even over a wide area. In Middle America, for example, the deity Quetzalcóatl—the Feathered Serpent—can be found in some form in almost every culture.

Dance

Most Indian dances were held for religious or social reasons. By honoring their spirits, or gods, the Indians hoped to gain help and favor. Shamans danced to seek aid for the sick. Hunters danced the deer dance or the buffalo dance to attract game. Farmers held dances to bring rain or to make the corn grow or ripen. Certain dances dramatized stories from the history or mythology of the tribe. Other ceremonies were held when children arrived at manhood or womanhood or to initiate them into the religious or secret societies of the tribe.

In many tribes there were clowns—representations of chaos—among the dancers. Their antics reinforced social values by demonstrating incorrect behavior and its consequences, which might range from embarrassment to the destruction of the world.

Music

Singing accompanied every public ceremony as well as the important events in an individual’s life. Religious songs were passed down from generation to generation, as they were an important part of the ceremonies. Women sang songs not only to ease the burden of their own activities, such as spinning, farming, and grinding, but also to encourage warriors or travelers as they went forth. Birds or animals, in folk stories, were supposed to sing their own songs, which were imitated by the storyteller. On the Northwest Coast there were spirited song contests between tribes. Certain songs were the exclusive property of clans and societies. Individuals in the clan, however, could sell or even give away songs that they created.

A variety of instruments accompanied dance and song. These included drums, rattles, whistles, flutes, bull-roarers, and notched sticks rasped on bones. The Indians made them of materials at hand. Plains drums had painted horsehide heads. Northwestern tribes used wooden boxes, and their rattles were made from wood or native copper. The Pueblo and other farming tribes made gourd rattles. The Iroquois used a turtle shell and a pot or water drum.

Storytelling

Every tribe had its legends of the history of the tribe. When the day’s work was done, the old people would tell these tales. There were also many stories of animals and mythical beings that could assume human form and yet retain some of their own particular traits. These stories both entertained children and taught them what kinds of behavior and actions were appropriate and inappropriate. Many stories were told about Coyote, Raven, Rabbit, and Fox, who were all thought of as tricksters. A trickster is a crafty character that usually gets caught in his own schemes. Coyote, for instance, is often said to be hungry and greedy, and no matter how hard he tries to trick the other animals into giving him food, he usually ends up still hungry—or with terrible indigestion. Indian stories and myths were passed by word of mouth from one generation to another. This is known as the oral tradition.

Physical Contests

The “ball play” popular throughout eastern North America has become the modern sport lacrosse. People trained extensively for this game because tribes often played it against one another. The ceremonial dancing and feasting before the games may be compared to modern football pep rallies. Intervillage footraces were held by the Pueblo, and horse racing was popular among the bison-hunting Plains tribes.

Ring-and-pole and hoop-and-pole games were popular in many areas. The players shot poles or spears through stone rings or into a netting on a rolling hoop. Snow snake was popular among northern tribes. The players hurled a long stick, sometimes painted to resemble a snake, to see who could send it farthest over the ice or frozen ground.

Shinny was a hockeylike game among women in many North American tribes. It was played with a curved stick and a ball. Women of the Southwest played a kind of football. They kicked a small ball around a long course. In early times, the game was thought to have magical powers, such as protecting the fields against sandstorms. Women in the Plains and the Plateau enjoyed a game like Hacky Sack, in which a small ball is kept aloft without using the hands.

Games of Chance

Indians of all tribes liked games of chance. The most common was called the hand game. A player held two bone or wooden cylinders, one plain and the other marked. His opponents attempted to guess which hand held the unmarked piece. One camp might compete against another. Backers lined up beside the players, shouting and singing to distract them. An Indian might lose his horses, buffalo robes, or everything he owned in the excitement.

Numerous games used markers resembling dice. Common among northern tribes was the bowl game. Players tossed marked peach or plum seeds in a bowl and bet on the outcome.

Children’s Play

Indian children played much as children play today. Girls played with dolls dressed in the costumes of their tribes, and their mothers, aunts, and grandmothers often made them child-sized homes to play in. Boys shot small arrows from toy bows and crept through the woods pretending to be hunters or warriors. Children had tops, stilts, slings, and other toys and made cat’s cradles with string. They kept dogs as pets.

Children learned skills from games then as they do now. Archery, target practice, and footraces taught skills needed by the hunters. Pueblo children learned about kachinas from their kachina dolls. The kachinas were mythical ancestors of the Pueblo people. They were thought to live in a lake beneath the earth. The tribes held kachina dances to celebrate visits from the spirits. The dancers gave kachina dolls to children, to inspire them to be like the kachina ancestors.

Early Colonization

The level and the nature of interaction that different Native American peoples had with European explorers and settlers varied for several reasons. First, areas that were good for farming or ranching were generally most attractive to the Europeans. Thus, Indians who lived on rich agricultural land typically had more contact with Europeans than those who lived by hunting and gathering in more remote areas. In addition, the cultural backgrounds of the Indians influenced how they interacted with the Europeans. For example, Indian farmers living in stratified societies, such as the Natchez, engaged with Europeans differently than did those who lived in bands and relied on hunting and gathering, such as the Apache. Finally, the Indian experience of European contact was affected by the differing goals and methods of the various colonial powers.

The Southeast

In 1540, the same year that Coronado entered the Southwest, Hernando de Soto was sent to establish Spanish control of the Southeast. At first the Indians treated de Soto and his troops as they would any large group of visitors, providing gifts to the leaders and food to the rest. In return, however, the Spanish often forced the Indians into slavery.

From The Life, Travels and Adventures of Ferdinand de Soto: Discoverer of the Mississippi by Wilmer Lambert, 1858

News of such treatment traveled quickly, and the de Soto expedition soon met with military resistance. Native warriors harassed the Spanish almost constantly and engaged them in many battles. Native leaders made a number of attempts to capture de Soto and the other leaders of his party, often by welcoming them into a walled town and closing the gates behind them. The Spanish troops responded to these situations with violence, typically storming the town and killing or capturing its residents.

The first permanent European settlement in the Southeast was St. Augustine, founded in 1565 in what is now Florida. As colonization continued, losses of people to capture, slaughter, and European diseases devastated the region’s Native American population. The survivors were subjected to the missionaries and their brutal tactics. In addition, many Indians were kidnapped and transported to the Caribbean to be sold as slaves. Some Indians moved to the few benevolent Catholic missions to take advantage of the protection offered by resident priests. Others banded together for defense or fled to remote areas.

The Northeast

Beginning with Jamestown in 1607, the English established colonies along the Eastern seaboard of what became the United States. At first the Indians helped the English colonists establish settlements, raise crops, and adjust to living in an environment that was quite different from England’s. Powhatan (Wahunsenacah), leader of an Algonquian-speaking confederacy in Virginia, and Massasoit (Wasamegin), leader of the Wampanoag Indians in New England, established generally peaceful trade relations with the English. But the spirit of friendship deteriorated as the expanding colonies pressed further into Indian territory, routinely breaking their boundary agreements.

By 1609 the region was experiencing a third year of severe drought. In response to English thievery (mostly of food), Powhatan prohibited the trading of food to the colonists. He also began to attack any colonists who left the Jamestown fort. These actions contributed to a period of starvation for the colony (1609–11) that nearly caused its abandonment.

After Powhatan’s death in 1618, his brother and successor, Opechancanough, tried to force the colonists out of the region. In 1622 his men launched attacks against Jamestown that killed some 350 of the 1,200 colonists. The so-called Powhatan War continued off and on until 1644, eventually resulting in a new boundary agreement between the Indians and the colonists. The fighting ended only after a series of epidemics had devastated the region’s native population, which shrank even as the English population grew. Within five years, colonists were once again trespassing in Powhatan territory.

© North Wind Picture Archives

North Wind Picture Archives

Another early clash between Indians and whites took place in Connecticut in 1636, when colonists attacked the principal village of the Pequot. About 600 Indians were killed, and the Pequot tribe was virtually destroyed. In 1675 various Indian tribes in New England formed an alliance to resist white settlement. It was led by Massasoit’s son Metacom (or Metacomet), who was called King Philip by the colonists. Metacom’s forces were at first victorious, but after a year of savage fighting they were defeated. Some 600 Europeans and 3,000 Indians had been killed. (See also King Philip’s War.)

In the eastern Great Lakes region, the Iroquois and the Huron competed bitterly with each other in the fur trade. The Iroquois formed an alliance with the English and the Dutch, and the Huron joined with the French. From the French the Huron acquired iron axes, which for a time gave them an advantage over the Iroquois. After 1620, however, the Iroquois obtained guns from the Dutch and the English, giving them the upper hand.

In the mid-1600s it became increasingly clear that beavers, the region’s most valuable fur-bearing animals, had been overhunted to the point of extinction in the home territories of both the Iroquois and the Huron. The Iroquois blockaded several major rivers in 1642–49, essentially halting canoe traffic between the Huron and their trading partners in the Subarctic. In 1648–49 the Iroquois gained a decisive victory against the Huron and burned many of their settlements. In 1649 the Huron chose to burn their remaining villages themselves before retreating to the interior.

Having defeated the Huron to their north and west, the Iroquois took the so-called Beaver Wars to the large Algonquin population to their north and east, to the Algonquian territory to their west and south, and to the French settlements of the Huron lands. The Iroquois fought the alliances of these groups for the rest of the 1600s, finally accepting a peace agreement in 1701.

Colonial Rivalries and Native Alliances

By the end of the 1600s the Indians’ struggles for their land became caught up in a series of wars between England and France for dominance in North America. These conflicts began in Europe and then spread to eastern North America. Some Indians aided the English, while others helped the French. In Queen Anne’s War of 1702–13, the English allied with some Southeast Indian nations, notably the Creek and the eastern Choctaw. The French joined with the Spanish and other Southeast Indians, notably the western Choctaw. The French lost and had to give up a vast territory in what is now Canada. In the Southeast the war left territorial borders in dispute, and the Indians fought the Europeans in a number of wars. One of the better known of these conflicts was the Yamasee War of 1715–16, in which an alliance of Yamasee, Creek, and other tribes fought unsuccessfully against English expansion.

From 1754 to 1763 England and France battled in the French and Indian War. The English, allied with the Iroquois Confederacy once again, faced a much-larger coalition made up of many Algonquian-speaking tribes, the French, and the Spanish. Surprisingly, given their smaller numbers, the Iroquois-English alliance prevailed. Under the peace treaty, France turned over to England its colonies east of the Mississippi River. England now ruled a vast territory reaching from Hudson Bay to the Gulf of Mexico and from the Atlantic coast to the Mississippi River.

With English rule came a new flood of settlers. Like earlier emigrants, they often trespassed on native lands. Some Indians took advantage of the disorder near the end of the French and Indian War to attack the settlers. In 1763 the Ottawa leader Pontiac led a coalition of tribes in capturing several English forts near the Great Lakes. In response to Pontiac’s War, the English issued the Proclamation of 1763, one of the most important documents in Native American legal history. The proclamation declared as Indian territory the land between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River and from the Great Lakes almost to the Gulf of Mexico. It forbade European settlement on this territory and ordered those settlers already there to leave. Nevertheless, thousands of settlers ignored the orders and moved into the reserved territory.

Disputes between the settlers and the British government eventually led to the American Revolution of 1775–83. In this war the English colonies won their independence. Many Indian tribes, under such leaders as the Mohawk known as Joseph Brant (Thayendanegea), fought for the British government, who posed as defenders of Indian land against the colonists. Indian aid provoked retaliatory campaigns by the colonial army, including one led by Gen. John Sullivan on the Iroquois of New York.

While the colonial wars raged in eastern North America, colonization continued in the western part of the continent. There the main imperial powers were Spain and Russia. In the Southwest the Spanish continued to dominate the Native Americans. The tribes there, particularly the Pueblo, continued to face severe punishment for any resistance to colonization. They publicly accepted some European ways while privately practicing their own traditions.

Spanish explorers had sighted California in 1542 but did not attempt to occupy it until 1769. Following the Pacific coast northward from Mexico, Spanish priests established 21 missions while soldiers built forts nearby. The arrival of the Spanish was disastrous for the California Indians. Troops forced these Indians to work as builders and farmers. As in the Southwest, resistance was often harshly punished. Nonetheless, many native Californians fled to distant areas to rebuild their lives.

Along the northern Pacific coast, Russia was the dominant power from the mid-18th century on. Russia sent Vitus Bering to explore the northern seas in 1728, and Russian traders reached the Aleutian Islands and the coasts of present-day Alaska (U.S.) and British Columbia (Canada) in the 1740s. The Russian occupation was brutal. The Native Alaskan men were forced to leave their villages for days to months at a time to hunt sea otters, which were valued for their fur. While the men were away, the Russians abused the women while also demanding food and labor. In the early decades of the 1800s, however, voluntary intermarriage between native women and Russian men began to soften colonial relations in Alaska. Both groups adopted some cultural traditions of the other.

Expansion of the United States

After the American Revolution the new U.S. government hoped to maintain peace with the Indians on the frontier. The government promised that the Proclamation of 1763 would be honored. The first full declaration of U.S. policy toward the Indians was embodied in the Northwest Ordinance of 1787:

The utmost good faith shall always be observed toward the Indians, their lands and property shall never be taken from them without their consent; and in their property, rights, and liberty, they shall never be invaded or disturbed, unless in just and lawful wars authorized by Congress; but laws founded in justice and humanity shall from time to time be made, for preventing wrongs being done to them, and for preserving peace and friendship with them.

The U.S. government sought to manage its relations with American Indian tribes through treaties. Beginning in 1778, the government negotiated hundreds of treaties in which tribes agreed to give up much of their territory. In exchange, the Indians typically received goods, money, and promises that U.S. citizens would not settle on the tribes’ remaining lands. Nevertheless, as the United States continued to expand westward, settlers built and farmed on lands that had been reserved for the Indians. The result was decades of conflict between Indians and the U.S. government.

Wars in the East

Some of the earliest conflicts took place in the Ohio River valley. When the Indians raided American settlements on their lands, the U.S. government responded with force. The Indians, in turn, formed an alliance called the Northwest Indian Confederation, consisting mainly of Shawnee, Lenni-Lenape, Ottawa, Iroquois, Ojibwa, Miami, and Potawatomi. The Indians defeated U.S. troops in 1790 and 1791 but were crushed in the Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794. In 1795 the Miami chief Little Turtle, representing the confederation, signed the Treaty of Greenville, ceding to the United States most of Ohio and parts of Indiana, Illinois, and Michigan.

The treaty accelerated westward migration and settlement of the Ohio Valley. In 1809 William Henry Harrison, a U.S. military leader and governor of the Indiana Territory, signed the Treaty of Fort Wayne with a number of Indian tribes, including the Miami, Lenni-Lenape, Potawatomi, and Kickapoo. The agreement ceded to the United States more than 3 million acres of Indian land in what are now Indiana and Illinois. Tecumseh, a Shawnee leader, strongly opposed the treaty. He organized several tribes to resist further ceding of Indian lands. A group of Shawnee led by Tecumseh’s brother Tenskwatawa were defeated in 1811 by General Harrison at the Battle of Tippecanoe.

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

During the War of 1812, Tecumseh’s coalition sided with the British and won a number of early victories. One of the most notable was the 1813 capture of Detroit. In the end, however, the war was a draw between England and the United States. Afterward, with the United States secure in its borders, federal policy focused on the removal of the Indians to areas west of the Mississippi River—to the so-called Great American Desert (the Great Plains), where, supposedly, no white man would ever want to live. To implement this policy, the Indian Removal Act was signed into law on May 28, 1830. It gave President Andrew Jackson, a dedicated foe of the Indians, the power to exchange land west of the Mississippi for the southeastern territory of the Five Civilized Tribes—the Cherokee, Creek, Choctaw, Chickasaw, and Seminole.

SuperStock

The removal policy led to a clash between Jackson and the U.S. Supreme Court, which had ruled in favor of the right of the Cherokee to retain their lands in Georgia. Jackson refused to enforce the Court’s decision, and in 1838 and 1839 the Cherokee, like the other tribes before them, were forced westward to Indian Territory (later Oklahoma). Their bitter trek during the dead of winter has become known as the Trail of Tears.

Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.

Smithsonian American Art Museum, Washington, D.C. Gift of Mrs. Joseph Harrison, Jr. (object no. 1985.66.301)

In 1832 Sauk and Fox Indians under Black Hawk in Wisconsin had been defeated after refusing to abandon their lands east of the Mississippi. In the 1830s and 1840s Seminole under Osceola unsuccessfully resisted removal from their homes in Florida. By the end of the 1840s, except for small segments of tribes who had fled to remote areas, the Northeast and Southeast Indians had been forced out of their original territories.

Wars in the West

By the 1840s the U.S. Army and the various Indian tribes in the Plains and parts of the Southwest and the Plateau were in a continual state of war. As white settlers encroached on Indian land, war would break out. Either the Indians would be defeated and transported elsewhere, or a treaty would be made in which the Indians and the U.S. government agreed to an exchange. Usually the Indians would trade part of their lands for a promise that the government would provide them with food, financial aid, health care, and schools. Because the land was to belong to others forever, the government was supposed to provide fresh supplies and services to the Indians forever. However, the government often broke these agreements after it had taken possession of the land.

Thousands of white settlers poured into the Oregon Territory after it was acquired from Great Britain in 1846. Numerous clashes erupted with tribes in the Northwest. In the 1850s wars broke out around Puget Sound after several small tribes were deceived into signing treaties in which they gave up most of their land. But they were quickly defeated and confined to reservations—tracts of land set aside for the Indians. Typically, the government created reservations on land that was difficult to develop economically.

In other areas of the Northwest, war continued into the late 1870s. In 1877 the Nez Percé Indians, led by Chief Joseph (Hinmaton-yalatkit), were defeated after refusing to agree to treaties ceding nearly all their land in the Pacific Northwest to the United States. Privations from loss of land, lack of food, and disease led to an unsuccessful uprising of the Bannock Indians of Idaho in 1878.

Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. (neg. no. LC-USZ62-36613)

The Southwest came under U.S. control as a result of the Mexican-American War of 1846–48. In 1847 Pueblo Indians rose up against settlers at Taos (later in New Mexico) and were defeated. But relations between settlers and the Pueblo, Pima, and Tohono O’odham (Papago) were usually peaceful. The Navajo and Apache retaliated when settlers seized their lands and destroyed their animals and gardens. The Navajo were overpowered in the 1860s and forced onto a reservation, but the Apache fought on. Even after they too were restricted to reservations, small bands continued to mount raids. When the Apache leader Geronimo (Goyathlay) finally surrendered in 1886, Indians in the Southwest ended their military resistance to colonization.

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Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

National Archives, Washington, D.C. (Identifier no. 531079)

In about 1850 the tribes of the Great Plains had begun attacking wagon trains carrying settlers westward. They were angered by ill treatment from the settlers and by the driving away of bison herds on which they were dependent for food, clothing, and shelter. Efforts by the Army and the government to preserve peace led to the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1851. The Plains tribes promised to confine themselves to designated hunting grounds, and the government agreed to keep settlers out of those areas. But when the government violated the treaty in 1865 by starting to construct forts and a wagon road to mining camps in Montana Territory, the Oglala Sioux under Red Cloud (Mahpiua Luta) attacked and destroyed several forts. By the terms of the second Fort Laramie Treaty in 1868, the government stopped the road construction, dismantled the forts, and again guaranteed the Indian reserve.

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In 1871 Congress decided that Indian tribes were no longer to be recognized as sovereign powers with whom treaties must be made. Although existing treaties were still valid, violations continued to occur. The treaty of 1868 had made the Black Hills of the Dakota Territory part of a large Sioux reservation. The discovery of gold there in 1874 started a stampede of white gold seekers. In 1875 the Sioux (an alliance of the Dakota, Lakota, and Nakota) refused to sell the land to the government, which then ordered them out of the area and onto reservations. When the Sioux refused, the Army, including troops under Lieut. Col. George A. Custer, was sent to enforce the order. On June 25, 1876, the government troops attacked a large group of Sioux and Cheyenne. The main body of Indians, under the Sioux leaders Sitting Bull (Tatanka Iyotake) and Crazy Horse (Tashunke Witko), wiped out Custer and his 200 men.

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This was the last major military victory by the Indians. Gradually they were rounded up and confined to reservations. Sitting Bull and other Sioux soon joined a new supernatural cult that predicted the white man would be wiped out and the Indian way of life preserved if enough Indians would perform the ceremonies known as the Ghost Dance. The Ghost Dance movement was crushed in 1890 with the arrest and murder of Sitting Bull and the massacre by the Army of several hundred Indians at the village of Wounded Knee in South Dakota. Almost 400 years after Columbus’ arrival, this massacre completed the military conquest of the American Indian. Across the continent, however, most groups continued to resist conquest in other ways, such as by maintaining their traditional languages and religious practices.

Government Policy

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The first federal agency to oversee governmental promises under Indian treaties was placed under the secretary of war by Congress in 1789. A Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) was created within the War Department in 1824 and was transferred to the new Department of the Interior in 1849.

The BIA was supposed to enforce the restrictions against whites on Indian lands and to prevent the illegal sale of such lands. The BIA was also supposed to help Indians sell or lease their land when it was legal to do so and to keep track of land inheritance when the owner died. Money deposited in the U.S. Treasury to the credit of Indian tribes in payment for land was administered on behalf of the Indians by the BIA. Unfortunately, many BIA agents were corrupt. As a result, many Indian lands were illegally sold or even stolen.

Allotment and assimilation

Forcibly restricted to reservations, and finding it difficult to make them productive, the Indians needed the government to fulfill its treaty promises of supplies and services. Many whites, regarding ownership of land as the basis of success, hoped that by owning their own farms the Indians would become independent farmers. Other whites, hungry for land, thought that too much land had already been reserved for the Indians. In addition, many whites thought that the government support of Indians was a kind of charity rather than a legal obligation.

All of these groups of whites urged the passage of the Dawes General Allotment Act of 1887. This act provided for dividing reservations, which had been held in common by the tribes, into parcels to be allotted to individual Indians. The “surplus” land, in at least one case a larger area than that divided among the Indians, was eventually sold to white homesteaders. Provisions of the act also granted citizenship to the Indians receiving parcels of land and to any other Indians who agreed to give up tribal life for “civilized” ways.

The Dawes Act resulted in the loss of tens of millions of acres of Indian land. Many Indians were unused to the idea of individual ownership of land and had little understanding of money. They sold their allotments at absurdly low prices, spent the money, and became destitute. Where land was retained, the amount possessed by each Indian became smaller as the land was divided through inheritance.

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At the same time, the government tried to assimilate, or integrate, Indians into the mainstream culture. One method of assimilation was the boarding, or residential, school. From the mid-1800s until as late as the 1960s, native families were forced to send their children to these institutions. The instruction was designed to eliminate any use of traditional language, behavior, or religion. Upon arrival, for instance, the children were forced to trade their clothes for uniforms. Students often experienced cruel forms of punishment, verbal abuse, and in some cases sexual abuse. Assimilation policies were also enforced on reservations. For example, government authorities prohibited traditional religious practices such as the Sun Dance and the potlatch. However, just as the Pueblo had hidden their religious activities when pressured by Spanish missionaries, many Indians continued to engage in traditional practices in secret.

Reorganization

Eventually it became apparent to government officials that the programs forcing Indians to adopt an alien way of life had been largely unsuccessful. In 1926 a survey found most Indians “extremely poor,” in bad health, without education, and isolated from the dominant Euro-American culture around them. In response to these findings and other calls for reform, Congress enacted the Indian Reorganization (Wheeler-Howard) Act of 1934, which ended the allotment policy. The new law’s most important provisions reestablished tribes as political entities and partially restored their internal sovereignty. A revival of Indian culture and religion was promoted.

Under the new law many of the tribes set up governments patterned after that of the United States. The tribes wrote constitutions and bylaws, set up executive, legislative, and judicial branches, and proceeded to elect tribal officials by secret ballot. The new law appropriated money for buying back some of the “surplus” land that had passed out of Indian ownership. Money was also provided for better educational and medical facilities and for general economic development.

Termination

Tribes used the powers granted in 1934 to remove whites from their land and to assert their legal rights to its natural resources. But growing attacks on the Indian Reorganization Act finally bore fruit when in 1953 Congress declared that all federal relations with Indian tribes should be terminated as soon as possible. Congress also permitted the state governments to assume civil and criminal jurisdiction over Indian reservations without the consent of the tribes occupying them.

The results of the termination program were dreadful. Some very poor Indian communities had to shut down crucial services such as schools and clinics when the federal government stopped funding them, despite treaty obligations to provide such aid. The tribes fought strenuously against termination laws in court actions and in appeals to the public. By the 1960s termination as a national Indian policy was dying. Subsequently, tribes that had been terminated worked to have their federal status restored. In the late 20th century American Indians became increasingly visible as they sought to achieve a better life on their own terms.

French and English Rivalry

The French began to settle in the eastern part of what is now Canada in the early 1600s. Fur-bearing animals were abundant in the Subarctic, and the colonists profited from trading pelts with the Indians in the St. Lawrence Valley and around the Great Lakes. Because the traders depended on the Indians for their livelihood, they generally were friendly with them. The French and the Indians frequently intermarried. Their descendants were called the Métis.

In response to French expansion, the English established the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1670. The company set up a number of fur-trading posts on the shores of James and Hudson bays. In the competition for control of the fur trade, the French became allies of the Algonquin and the Huron. The English sided with the Iroquois, who were enemies of the Huron. European firearms made warfare among the tribes much deadlier than before.

Starting in the late 1600s the English and the French fought a series of wars for control of North America. The decisive conflict was the French and Indian War, which lasted from 1754 to 1763. The English and the Iroquois defeated the French and their Indian allies, becoming the dominant power on the continent.

Westward Expansion and Indian Resistance

At the end of the French and Indian War, the British Crown issued the Proclamation of 1763. It designated as Indian land the huge territory bounded by the Great Lakes, the Appalachian Mountains, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Mississippi River. Later, in the 1830s, England began setting aside reserve lands for Indians. But these measures failed to stop the westward push of white settlers, who regularly disregarded Indian land rights.

The events of the 1800s were greatly influenced by competition between the Hudson’s Bay Company and another fur-trading enterprise, the North West Company. In 1811–12 the Hudson’s Bay Company established a new colony, the Red River colony, in what is now Manitoba. This territory had long been the home of the Métis, a number of whom were officers in the North West Company. The Métis harassed the new settlers, sometimes burning their buildings and destroying their crops. In 1816 a group of North West Company men, almost all Métis, killed 20 Hudson’s Bay Company soldiers in a conflict known as the Seven Oaks Massacre.

The hostility between the rival companies was not resolved until 1821, when the British government insisted that they merge. The resulting corporation retained the Hudson’s Bay Company name and many of its policies. Among these policies was a refusal to hire native peoples for anything but the most basic labor. Many Métis lost their jobs as trappers and traders and began to move from the countryside into the Red River colony.

In 1867 the British government granted Canada independence through the British North America Act. The legislation did little to address the concerns of the Métis or other native peoples. Two years later the Canadian government bought Rupert’s Land (the land north and west of the eastern colonies) from the Hudson’s Bay Company. Within this territory was the Red River colony. The Métis resisted the Canadian takeover. Led by Louis Riel, they seized Fort Garry (now Winnipeg), the headquarters of the Hudson’s Bay Company, and established their own government. As president, Riel represented the Métis in negotiations with Canada. In 1870 the Canadian government issued the compromise Manitoba Act, which made the Red River colony into the province of Manitoba. The act also guaranteed many rights demanded by Riel.

Still, Canada’s westward march continued. In the 1870s the Canadian government began negotiated treaties with the native peoples for lands in the west. Signed between 1871 and 1921, these 11 agreements are called the Numbered Treaties. In return for moving to reserves, the native peoples were often promised cash, farm equipment, livestock, and supplies as well as services such as health care and schools. The government, however, often failed to live up to its treaty obligations. Furthermore, the bison on which the Plains Indians depended were disappearing, largely because of slaughter by white hunters. Poverty, starvation, and disease spread among the western tribes.

In 1884, at the suggestion of the Cree leader Big Bear, more than 2,000 native people met on the reserve of another Cree leader, Poundmaker. Although tribal leaders had been quietly meeting for years to schedule bison hunts, this was by far the largest native gathering the Canadian Plains had seen. In response, Canadian government agents banned travel between reserves and began to withhold food as a method of control.

The government actions led to a crisis. In 1884, at the request of Métis leaders, Louis Riel returned to Canada from exile in the United States. He unsuccessfully pressed the Canadian government to grant the Métis a colony in Saskatchewan. In 1885 he led another armed uprising, known as the North West Rebellion. It was quickly crushed by the Canadian military. Riel was found guilty of treason and hanged. Big Bear and Poundmaker, though they had acted as peacemakers, were sentenced to prison; both died within two years. The defeat of the rebellion subdued the native peoples of western Canada for decades.

Government Policy

The British Proclamation of 1763 marked the first time that a European colonial power formally recognized Indian land titles. It forbade all white settlement on Indian territory without the consent of the Indians and the Crown. It also established principles for negotiating treaties with the Indians.

After 1867, the new Canadian government drew on the British model in developing its own Indian policy. The treaties by which the government acquired western Indian lands were based on principles outlined in the Proclamation of 1763. A new Department of Indian Affairs negotiated the treaties and oversaw the reserves.

As in the United States, the Canadian government sought to assimilate the Indians into mainstream society. The main legislation promoting assimilation was the Indian Act, first passed in 1876 and expanded over the years. The original act established a legal definition for the word Indian. People legally defined as Indians were known as status Indians. They could live on reserves and had certain other rights. Indians who chose to give up their status rights were called nonstatus Indians. These Indians were said to be enfranchised. Indian women who married non-Indian men were automatically enfranchised until 1985, when the law was changed. Few Indians chose enfranchisement because they did not want to give up their tribal identity and privileges.

In 1969 the Canadian government tried to abolish the Indian Act and eliminate Indian status. Indian groups strongly protested the new policy and forced the government to withdraw its proposal, which had become known as the White Paper. The protest sparked a surge in political activism among Canada’s native peoples. New organizations advocated for native rights, improved education, and economic development.

Exploration and Conquest

The Spanish realized the economic possibilities of the Americas only gradually. They had occupied the larger islands of the West Indies by 1512, finding the land nearly empty of treasure. On trips to the mainland, however, the Spanish heard stories about the wealth and splendor of the Aztec and Inca empires.

In 1519 the Spanish soldier Hernán Cortés reached central Mexico on an expedition to conquer the Aztec. Though he came with only about 500 soldiers and 16 horses, Cortés assembled a large army from among the Indian enemies of the Aztec. After a brief initial success at Tenochtitlán, the Aztec capital, the Spanish were driven out in 1520. They returned in 1521, however, to overwhelm the Aztec and destroy the city. This victory marked the fall of the Aztec Empire. Cortés established Mexico City on the site of Tenochtitlán.

Within a short time the Spanish conquered the rest of central and southern Mexico and much of Central America from their base in Mexico City. By 1525 Spanish rule had been extended as far south as Guatemala and Honduras. In northern Mexico and Costa Rica the Indians put up strong resistance, but they too were conquered later in the 1500s.

The conquest of the Inca in Peru was led by Francisco Pizarro, a Spanish adventurer who had settled in Panama. He sailed for Peru in 1531 with fewer than 200 men and about 40 horses. Taking advantage of a civil war among the Inca, Pizarro captured the last Inca emperor, Atahuallpa, in 1532. A year later the Spanish conquered Cuzco, the Inca capital.

Following the Inca conquest, the Spanish went out in all directions from central Peru. Pedro de Valdivia conquered Chile, and Francisco de Orellana explored the Amazon River. Other conquistadors entered the regions that would become Ecuador, Colombia, and Argentina.

The Portuguese explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral reached the coast of Brazil in 1500. However, the new land was of little interest to Portugal until that country began to feel the threat of French or Spanish intrusion in about 1530. The Portuguese established their first settlement in Brazil in 1532.

Colonization and Its Effects

The impact of the European conquests varied among the native peoples of Middle and South America. Generally, the most severely affected groups were those who lived along major navigational routes. They suffered from nearly continuous exposure to the violence of conquest. In more remote regions, however, some Indians had little or no contact with Europeans and managed to keep their cultures intact.

Some peoples, such as the Araucanian of southern Chile, fiercely resisted Spanish domination. Most groups, however, offered little resistance and quickly fell under Spanish rule. Many Indians were killed during the conquests. Others died from European diseases such as measles and smallpox, for which they had no immunity. The combination of disease and violence killed millions of Indians throughout the Americas. The Indians of the Caribbean virtually disappeared, as did some other groups. Central Mexico would not regain its pre-Columbian population numbers until about 1900.

In Middle America the Spanish overthrew the high civilization of the Aztec and destroyed the native culture. They substituted Spanish officials for the Indian nobility. The Indians were grouped into villages modeled on the European grid pattern, with a central plaza on which stood the church and town hall. The Spanish introduced new farming techniques and crops along with steel, horses and farm animals, mines, European crafts, and new forms of social organization.

In Peru the Spanish systematically took over the Inca Empire. Spanish forms of government replaced those of the empire, and land use and ownership changed radically. To some extent the Inca upper classes were absorbed into Spanish colonial society. The native nobles served in the colonial administration and adopted Spanish dress and other customs. The farmers who made up the bulk of the population, however, were treated merely as a source of labor for the colony. Inca agriculture underwent great change through the introduction of European crops that were demanded by the Spanish rulers.

Most of the Indians in the Spanish colonies had their lands stripped away through the encomienda system. Encomiendas were estates granted to conquistadors and others who had provided service to the Spanish crown. In theory the landowner was to protect the Indians living on the land and teach them Christianity in return for the Indians’ labor. In practice, however, the landowner often abused and enslaved the Indians, forcing them to work the fields and labor in mines. The landowner could also collect tribute, or payments, from the Indians. Later, encomiendas were gradually replaced by estates called haciendas. But the change did little to help the Indian workers, who were bound to the land by debts to the landowners.

In contrast to the Spanish, the Portuguese divided their colony in Brazil into pieces of land called captaincies. The government granted the captaincies to proprietors called donatários. The donatários in turn granted land to settlers. Plantation agriculture based on Indian slave labor quickly became the foundation of Brazil’s economy. As increasing numbers of Indians died from European diseases, however, the Portuguese brought in African slaves to work on the captaincies.

To accomplish the goal of religious conversion, Jesuit priests set up missions and religious reservations. As the Europeans imposed Roman Catholicism, they tried to stamp out Indian religions. The missionaries were often violent. Beatings, dismemberment, and execution were common punishments for Indians who continued their traditional religious practices. Native beliefs and practices did not disappear, however. Instead, the Indians often incorporated elements of Roman Catholicism into their traditional rituals.

Marriage between Spanish men and Indian women was accepted. The children of these marriages were called mestizos. After a few generations, a complex social order based on ancestry, land ownership, wealth, and noble titles had developed in the Spanish colonies.

The Postcolonial Era

Spain’s colonies in Mexico, Central America, and South America gained independence in the early 1800s. Yet even after the Spanish left, power remained concentrated in the hands of wealthy landowners. Many Indians remained poor laborers who were tied to the land by debt to the landowners. In most countries they still had to pay tribute to the landowners as well. Later in the 1800s the Indians who had managed to remain relatively independent lost land as ranches and plantations expanded.

Native communities came together in opposition to land grabbing and anti-Indian policies. In Mexico, Indian peasants rallied behind Emiliano Zapata to fight the government in the Mexican Revolution (1910–20). As a result of the revolution, the government began returning land to the peasants. Later, after World War II, other countries in Middle and South America introduced land reform programs. Among them were Bolivia, Chile, Peru, Colombia, and Brazil. Nevertheless, the standard of living for most Indians remained poor. By the late 20th century these conditions would spur Indians to political action in a number of Middle and South American countries.

Reservations

In the United States, Indian reservations are concentrated in the West and in the Great Lakes region. The largest is the Navajo reservation, which covers some 16 million acres (6.5 million hectares) in Arizona, New Mexico, and Utah. Other large reservations include the Tohono O’odham reservation in Arizona, the Uintah and Ouray reservation in Utah, the Wind River reservation in Wyoming, the Fort Peck and Crow reservations in Montana, and three Sioux reservations—Pine Ridge, Cheyenne River, and Standing Rock—in the Dakotas. Most reservation land is owned communally by tribes, though some is held by individuals. Where land is communally owned, tribes generally grant pieces of land to individual members for their use.

Most U.S. and Canadian reservations were established in the 19th and early 20th centuries. They generally were created through treaties or by colonial decree and covered only a small portion of the group’s traditional land. Usually they were placed on land that was difficult to develop economically—that is, in areas that were very dry, wet, steep, or remote. Because economic opportunities are limited, people seeking higher education or employment often have to leave the reservation. In addition, when compared with neighboring areas, reservations have historically tended to be underdeveloped in terms of infrastructure, social services, and housing. For instance, U.S. rural electrification programs provided electricity to 90 percent of farms by 1950—a tremendous rise compared with the 10 percent that had electricity in 1935. In contrast, the number of homes with access to electricity did not approach 90 percent on reservations until 2000.

On some reservations, out-migration among those seeking an education or jobs has combined with slow local development to foster high rates of poverty, substance abuse, and violence. However, a number of forces also counter these tendencies, most notably the efforts of Native American professionals and activists who work to improve their communities. In addition, many people who have left reservations continue to support its residents by providing them with money and other forms of assistance. Income from tourism has also aided some reservation communities. Cultural festivals and casinos, among other attractions, draw visitors to reservation lands.

Urbanization

Urbanization had a major impact on native communities of the United States and Canada in the second half of the 20th century. In the United States in 1900, less than 1 percent of the native population lived in cities and towns. By 1950 that number had risen to only 13 percent. By 2000, however, about two thirds of U.S. Indians lived in urban areas. U.S. cities with large native populations include New York City; Los Angeles, California; Phoenix, Arizona; Tulsa, Oklahoma; Oklahoma City, Oklahoma; Anchorage, Alaska; Albuquerque, New Mexico; and Chicago, Illinois. The number of native Canadians living in urban areas increased from 13 percent in 1961 to 30 percent in 1971 and eventually to more than 50 percent in the early 21st century. Canadian cities with large native populations include Winnipeg, Manitoba; Edmonton, Alberta; Vancouver, British Columbia; Toronto, Ontario; Calgary, Alberta; Saskatoon, Saskatchewan; and Regina, Saskatchewan.

The main cause of urbanization among Native Americans has been migration from reservations and other rural areas to cities. In the United States, this migration began largely as a result of a relocation program launched by the U.S. Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) in 1948 and supported by Congress from the 1950s on. The program was designed to transform the mostly rural native population into an urban workforce that was integrated into the mainstream culture. The BIA established offices in a variety of destination cities, including Chicago, Illinois; Los Angeles, California; Dallas, Texas; Denver, Colorado; San Francisco, California; San Jose, California; and Saint Louis, Missouri. The BIA promised to provide a variety of services to ease the transition to city life, including transportation from the reservation, financial assistance, and help in finding housing and employment.

Many Indians, who could find little work on the economically depressed reservations, tried the program. From 1948 to 1980, when the program ended, some 750,000 Indians are estimated to have relocated to cities (though not all did so under the official program). Some program participants fared well in the cities, adjusting to urban life and joining the middle class. This was true especially of those Indians with education and skills. Many participants were poorly educated, however, and thus ill-equipped to succeed in the cities. In addition, the distribution and quality of the services provided by the BIA were often uneven. Many Indians who failed to find work returned to their reservations. Some moved back and forth between reservations and cities following job opportunities.

Today, Native Americans who live in cities differ in some ways from their rural counterparts. For example, they are more likely to marry non-Indians and less likely to speak a native language. To keep from losing touch with their cultural traditions, many urban Indians make a point of keeping in contact with their extended families still living on reservations. In addition, they can seek out the American Indian centers found in many large cities. These centers host social events and provide services for urban Indians of all tribes in such areas as employment, housing, and education.

United States

Although Native Americans had been fighting for their rights for centuries, they became increasingly visible in the late 20th century. During the 1960s, as African Americans campaigned for equality in the civil rights movement, Indians also drew attention to their causes through mass demonstrations and protests. The causes they championed included economic independence, revitalization of traditional culture, and protection of legal rights. Above all was control over tribal areas and the restoration of lands that they believed had been illegally seized.

The American Indian Movement (AIM), a militant organization formed in 1968, took part in many highly publicized protests. For 19 months in 1969–71 Indian activists occupied Alcatraz Island in San Francisco Bay (California), claiming it as Indian land. In 1973 about 200 armed AIM supporters, led by Russell Means and Dennis Banks, occupied the hamlet of Wounded Knee on the Oglala Sioux Pine Ridge Reservation in South Dakota. Wounded Knee had been the site of a bloody massacre of Indians by the U.S. Army in 1890. In a 71-day siege, two Indians were killed and one federal marshal was seriously wounded.

During the 1960s and ’70s native peoples turned increasingly to the courts to press their causes. For example, the rights to forest and mineral resources on tribal lands became the subjects of many lawsuits. Perhaps the most famous case was United States vs. Washington (1974), more commonly referred to as the Boldt case after the federal judge who wrote the decision. This case established that treaty agreements entitled certain Northwest Coast and Plateau tribes to one half of the fish taken in the state of Washington. The far-reaching decision also had implications in other states where tribes had similarly reserved the right to fish.

Some native groups have pressed claims to land taken in the 19th century and earlier. In some cases the Indians want the land returned to them; in others they want cash reparations. The largest land settlement in U.S. history was the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act, passed by Congress in 1971. It awarded approximately 44 million acres (17.8 million hectares) of land and almost 1 billion dollars to the Indians, Aleut, and Inuit of Alaska. Even in cases where native peoples are victorious, however, land-claim issues can be difficult to resolve. In United States vs. Sioux Nation of Indians (1980), for example, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the government’s 1877 acquisition of the Black Hills region of South Dakota from the seven Lakota tribes was not legal. Although the Lakota were offered a substantial sum of money, all seven tribal governments refused to accept payment. Instead, they insisted upon the return of the land they regard as a holy place. As far as the Lakota are concerned, the issue remains unresolved.

In the United States sovereignty and other rights issues can be very complex because of competing national, state, and local claims to authority. One area that demonstrates this complexity is criminal jurisdiction—that is, who has the authority to handle criminal matters involving Indians and their lands. Two examples help to clarify the interaction of tribal, regional, and federal authorities in this area of law. One area of concern has been whether a non-Indian who commits a criminal act while on reservation land can be prosecuted in the tribal court. In Oliphant vs. Suquamish Indian Tribe (1978), the U.S. Supreme Court determined that tribes do not have the authority to prosecute non-Indians, even when such individuals commit crimes on tribal land. This decision was clearly a blow to tribal sovereignty. In response, some reservations closed their borders to non-Indians to ensure that their law enforcement officers could keep the peace within the reservation.

The Oliphant decision might lead one to presume that, because non-Indians may not be tried in tribal courts, Indians in the United States would not be subject to prosecution in state or federal courts. This issue was decided to the contrary in United States vs. Wheeler (1978). Wheeler was a Navajo who had been convicted in a tribal court. He argued that the concept of double jeopardy—which protects a person from being tried twice for the same crime—meant that he could not be prosecuted for that crime in federal or state court. In this case the Supreme Court favored tribal sovereignty—it ruled that the actions of the tribal court stood separately from those of the states or the United States. In other words, a tribe was entitled to prosecute its members. Additionally, however, the ruling meant that Indians could indeed be tried for a single crime in both a tribal and a state or federal court.

Canada

In the late 1960s the Canadian government tried to abolish the Indian Act and eliminate Indian status. Indian protests defeated the proposal and also led to a sharp increase in native political activism during the 1970s. New native organizations flourished in the provinces and territories. At the national level, Indians were represented by the National Indian Brotherhood (now the Assembly of First Nations), while Métis and people who lacked legal recognition as Indians, such as Indian women who had married non-Indian men, were represented by the Native Council of Canada (now the Congress of Aboriginal Peoples). Inuit interests were represented by the Inuit Circumpolar Conference (ICC), formed in 1977 by the Inuit of Canada, Greenland, and Alaska. In 1983 the ICC was recognized officially by the United Nations.

The efforts of native Canadian activists led to significant progress. The Constitution Act (or Canada Act) of 1982 legally recognized native rights, including the right of self-government. In 1983 a government report recommended the establishment of new forms of self-government, and since then efforts to increase native sovereignty have continued. Land claims by the Inuit led to the creation in 1999 of Nunavut, a new province administered by and for the Inuit. The name Nunavut means “Our Land” in the Inuit language.

Middle and South America

The late 20th and early 21st centuries saw a variety of political and economic movements by the Indians of Middle and South America. The Indians often protested the loss of their lands to industry and agriculture. An Indian uprising in Ecuador in 1990 pushed the government to recognize native land rights and address the Indians’ other concerns, but unrest continued into the 21st century. Amazonian Indians in Brazil and Peru have battled against the intrusion of mining and other companies. In 2009 clashes between Indians and police in Peru turned violent, and dozens of people were killed. In Guatemala Indian peasants fought repressive military governments in a 36-year civil war that ended in 1996. Brutal government tactics resulted in the deaths of about 200,000 mostly unarmed citizens. In Mexico a group called the Zapatista National Liberation Army rebelled against the government in 1994 to demand Indian rights. In later years that group staged massive protests and demonstrations throughout Mexico. In other countries, such as Belize and Costa Rica, governments responded to Indian activism by integrating Indians more completely into the national culture.

In some Middle and South American countries, native peoples have become a strong political force. They formed political parties to represent their interests and elected native representatives to office. The first Native American head of state, Juan Evo Morales Aymo, became president of Bolivia in 2006.

Causes of Underdevelopment

The causes of economic underdevelopment among Native Americans are many. One is the limitations of reservations. Reservations were typically established in rural areas that were considered to be too dry, too wet, too steep, or too remote to be economically productive. Later land losses increased the economic challenges faced by native peoples. In addition, the rural locations of reservations meant that for much of the 20th century farming was the only available employment for many Indians. During this time farming was declining as a source of employment and income in the United States as a whole. Thus, it is not surprising that Native American farmers and farm laborers struggled to make a living.

Another reason for economic underdevelopment among American Indian peoples is the historical lack of quality schools for native children and young people. These limited opportunities are reflected in measures of educational attainment. In the United States in the early 21st century, only 12 percent of the native population age 25 and older had a bachelor’s degree, compared with 24 percent of all Americans.

Beginning in the mid-20th century, many Native Americans migrated from rural areas to cities as part of a relocation program run by the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA). It was hoped that the Indians would find work in the cities and improve their standard of living. However, they often lacked the skills and education needed to adapt to the urban setting. In addition, services promised to urban Indians by the BIA were often inadequate. For most Indians, relocation failed to improve their economic standing.

Economic Growth

During the late 20th and early 21st centuries native groups used a variety of methods to foster economic growth. Some of these had been in use for centuries, such as the filing of lawsuits to reclaim lost territory. Long-standing operations in mining, timber, fishing, farming, and ranching also continued to play important roles in economic development on reservations that are rich in natural resources. For the Crow tribe of the U.S. state of Montana, for example, coal mining was an important source of income and employment. Some tribes developed new industries, typically in light manufacturing or services. The Choctaw people of Oklahoma established particularly successful manufacturing enterprises, producing a variety of equipment for the military. Using the Internet, tribes in even the most remote areas could provide services such as information technology, accounting, and order processing.

Tourism has been a growing source of income, especially for Native Americans who live in scenic places. Tribal businesses such as hotels, restaurants, golf courses, water parks, outlet malls, and casinos have been profitable. Some tribes sponsor cultural festivals to attract tourists. Especially popular is the powwow, a festival of native culture that features traditional singing and dancing. These festivals also provide native families and individuals with opportunities to sell traditional and modern art. Some Native Americans have used their skills to find employment as hunting and fishing guides.

Some native communities have made money by agreeing to store materials that are difficult to dispose of, such as medical and nuclear waste. For the most part, these projects did not begin until the late 20th or early 21st centuries, and they have generally been controversial. Tribe members often disagree about whether the income is worth the potential dangers of storing or disposing of these materials.

Gaming

Although Native Americans have developed a variety of businesses, the most important tool of economic development for many U.S. tribes has been the casino. The first Indian casino was built in Florida by the Seminole tribe, which opened a successful high-stakes bingo parlor in 1979. Other native peoples quickly followed suit.

The Seminole and other tribes faced a number of legal challenges over the next decade. Many lawsuits argued that state laws regarding gaming should apply on tribal land. The issue was decided in California vs. Cabazon Band of Mission Indians (1987), in which the U.S. Supreme Court upheld tribal sovereignty. Gaming could thus take place on reservations in states that did not forbid gambling or lotteries.

The U.S. Congress passed the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act in 1988 to place some limits on the industry. The act divided various forms of gambling—such as bingo, slot machines, and card games—into categories and set regulations for each. It also required tribes to enter into agreements with state governments. These agreements guaranteed that a proportion of gaming profits—sometimes as much as 50 percent—would be given to states to offset costs related to the casinos. Among such costs are increased law enforcement and treatment programs for gambling addiction. Some of the profits are also distributed as assistance to tribes that do not have gaming.

Some Native American gaming operations have been very profitable, while others have been only minimally successful. The level of success depends to a great extent on location. In general, casinos in or near major cities attract more visitors and are much more successful than those in remote areas. Because many reservations are in remote areas, many Indian casinos have not made significant profits. For the tribes that run these casinos, gaming has failed to provide the economic boost needed to pull them out of poverty. Tribes with successful operations, however, have been able to use gaming income to improve the general health, education, and cultural well-being of their members. Some peoples have reached a level of prosperity that they had not seen since the first European contact centuries ago.