The most popular battery type used in todays electronic devices is __________.

Introduction

Lithium-ion batteries consisting of LiCoO2 and graphite are popular worldwide as power sources for mobile phones, laptop computers, and other electronic devices. Graphite and LiCoO2 are called lithium insertion materials. In other words, the lithium-ion battery consists of two lithium insertion materials. The combination of two lithium insertion materials is essential for the basic function of the lithium-ion battery. An advantage of the lithium-ion battery concept is that the operating voltage of the battery can be designed by the choice of insertion reaction in terms of operating voltage and its charge–discharge profile. In this article, 1.5 V lithium-ion batteries consisting of V2O5 and Li2Nb2O5 are described, which were developed as power sources for memory backup, digital watches with solar cells or mechanical charger, and so on.

3.1.2 Li-Ion Battery

Lithium-ion batteries (Li-ion) have many desirable characteristics such as high efficiencies, a long cycle life, high energy density, and high power density (Table 2) [4]. These characteristics, along with their capability for fast discharge, have made them nearly ideal for portable electronics applications. The main downsides are that the DOD (Depth of Discharge) cycle can affect the Li-ion battery's lifetime, and the battery pack usually requires an onboard computer to manage its operation, thereby increasing overall costs.

Moreover, protection circuits are required due to Li-ion battery fragility and the use of flammable organic electrolytes raises issues about security and greenness. Nevertheless, Li-ion batteries have been successfully installed in both grid-connected and offgrid systems. Some large-scale energy storage projects have been installed around the world. For example, Japan's Sendai Substation installed 40 MW/20 MWh of a Li-ion battery pilot project for frequency regulation and voltage support. In addition, Japan's Tohoku Minami-Soma Substation installed 40 MW/40 MWh of Li-ion battery storage, with the aim of improving the balance between the renewable energy supply and the power demand [23]. The Zhangbei National Wind and Solar Energy Storage and Transmission Demonstration Project, Northern China, installed 14 MW/63 MWh of Li-ion batteries to provide electric energy time shift, renewable capacity firming, and ramping and frequency regulation in combination with a wind and a solar power plant [23]. A123 Systems has installed 36 MW/9 MWh of grid-connected lithium-ion battery storage in various locations, serving needs that include renewable integration and grid stability [24]. Tesla has installed the world's largest Li-ion battery storage 100 MW/129MWh paired with Neoen's Hornsdale wind farm in Jamestown, Australia [25].

Abstract

Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries currently represent the state-of-the-art power source for all modern consumer electronic devices. As several new applications for Li-ion batteries emerge like Electric Drive Vehicles (EDVs) and Energy Storage Systems (ESSs), cell design and performance requirements are constantly evolving and present unique challenges to the traditional battery producers. A strong demand for safe and reliable performance of high-energy and high-power density Li-ion batteries thus becomes inevitable. This chapter focuses on the safety aspects of Li-ion batteries on a system level and on a cell level. Also, most commonly practiced abuse tolerance tests have been explained with actual cell test data. Furthermore, internal short and lithium deposition occurring in Li-ion cells and failure mechanism associated with them are discussed.

3.5.1 Lithium-ion batteries

Lithium-ion batteries are extensively employed in a large variety of miniaturized electronic equipments. These types of batteries are mainly composed of a cathode immersed in an electrolyte solution separated by a selective membrane and a lithium-based anode. The performance of the lithium-ion batteries is always based on the conductivity of the electrodes. Therefore, researchers put so much effort into the development of the electrochemical features of the electrodes through the design and application of a number of novel materials [127].

Recently, graphene-based nanomaterials were successfully employed for the lithium-ion battery applications because of their superior features such as their light weight large working potential, relatively high energy density, great recharge ability and low self-discharge [128–133].

Graphene and graphene-based nanomaterials which have porous structures are widely preferred for the lithium-ion battery applications since these unique nanomaterials provide facile transport of electrons and ions in the electrode materials of the lithium-ion batteries. To provide the power for the needs of the novel devices and applications, it is required to upgrade lithium-ion batteries in terms of their reliability and performance [134–140].

Generally, rechargeable upgrade lithium-ion batteries work via the transport of lithium ions during charging and discharging process. The main components of cells of lithium-ion batteries are cathode, anode and electrolyte. Although lithium-ion batteries are employed as a crucial tool for today's miniaturized and rechargeable electronics devices, they exhibit some serious drawbacks including their high costs, low energy density and limited life cycle. To overcome these drawbacks, various carbon-based nanomaterials were tested as components in lithium-ion batteries. Among these nanomaterials, GO, graphene, graphene-based nanocomposites and their derivatives have drawn great interest for storing lithium as anodic materials in lithium-ion batteries because of their unique features including large surface area, high conductivity and excellent charge carrier mobility [141–145]. The main benefit of graphene-based nanocomposites instead of using pure graphene sheets in lithium-ion battery applications is that secondary nanomaterial such as carbon nanotubes has ability to prevent aggregation and loss of internal surface area when multiple layers of graphene are used [146]. Various types of transition metal oxides (i.e. tin, nickel, iron, and copper) were efficiently combined with graphene to develop novel and high-performing electrode materials for lithium-ion batteries [147,148].

The extensive studies were also focused on the addressing the diffusion limits for lithium ions in electrode materials [149]. For this purpose, various macro- and microstructured materials were tested by carefully arranging the graphene nanosheets or nanofibres for the decrease of the diffusion path length of lithium ions [149].

Lithium-Ion Batteries

Lithium-ion batteries have made significant progress since their commercial market introduction in the early 1990s. Currently, the major markets are the powering of small electronic appliances such as cellular phones, portable computers, or cameras. Furthermore, lithium-ion technology is rapidly gaining market share in the power tools market. Higher energy density at comparable high power density as compared to alkaline batteries is the main driver.

In most of the early designs, the negative electrode consisted of graphite, whereas the positive electrode was made from lithium cobalt oxide. However, a wide selection of positive and negative electrode materials is under investigation.

In addition to high energy and power density, lithium-ion batteries have shown high cycle life particularly when operated under shallow cycling conditions.

Recently, serious development effort has been devoted to lithium-ion batteries for vehicle traction as well as stationary applications. Promising results have been achieved in both applications. Currently, high-capacity lithium-ion batteries are available as prototypes only.

A widespread introduction of battery-powered vehicles in the future might open new business models for electric utilities using a pool of electric vehicles plugged to the electric grid as a buffer for load management.

At the present time, limited calendar life when stored under full charge conditions is one of the major obstacles for use of lithium-ion batteries in the power sector. In addition, safety is a main concern in the use of lithium-ion batteries. The introduction of inherently safe materials or battery designs will be a prerequisite for wide market introduction of high-energy lithium-ion batteries. The use of lithium-ion batteries for applications in energy storage for electric grids or electric vehicles is subject to current research work.

Which of the following is an example of an operating system that is used by smartphones?

Is data that is entered into a computer _____ is the result produced by a computer?

Which type of cable is used for high capacity trunk lines?

Which of the following assists the computer system is called ____?