Religious movements and religions have had an important role on the history of the Silk Roads. It is notably the case of Buddhism which had a considerable influence on the early trade routes. Within these growing trade route networks, Buddhism started its development from the Indian Subcontinent, and reached other regions along the Silk Roads. Buddhism dogma was to a greater extent in favour of trade, and encouraged the commerce and the investment. Show
In this respect, Buddhism practices changed on some aspects. For instance, Buddhist monasteries started to set up along the developing trade routes, such as the road that was connecting Bactria (in Modern Afghanistan) in the North to Taxila (in modern Pakistan) in the Northeast, Mathura in the Northwest, and further along the Gangues Valley, until the Bengal Coast. Therefore, one would say that these installations were directly linked to the economic growth of these centres, where merchants and religious communities traded together buying goods, such as cloth or incense oil. Moreover, these commercials exchanges contributed also to the improvement of the Buddhist monks’ situation. Notably thanks to the Buddhist concept of Dāna (generosity), which encouraged receiving contributions from the merchants and other actors of trade along the Silk Roads. In return, monks provided spiritual guidance to the devotees for material gifts. As an example, initially 4 categories of items were permitted to be given as alms, but by the 2nd and 3rd centuries BC, 10 more categories were added to the list. The development of trade amongst merchants of the region along the Silk Roads resulted in a further expansion of Buddhism towards eastern Asian lands, especially in Thailand and Indonesia regions; where excavations displayed the interactions of these lands with Buddhist institutions linked to trading groups. Diverse items of Indian origin with Buddhist features were also found in mainland and peninsular Southeast Asian regions such as precious stones and glass beads, inscribed carnelian and terracotta seals, ivory objects and pottery. Moreover, wooden images of the Buddha dating from between the 2nd and 7th century CE were discovered in the Mekong Delta in south of Vietnam. Furthermore, images of the Dīpankara Buddha were found in diverse sites in eastern Java, some of these elements belong to the Indian Amaravati and Gupta Schools of Art. Besides, archaeological findings in Beikthano situated in the western regions of modern Myanmar revealed a Buddhist stupa (Buddhist monument) having similarities with a stupa in Amaravathi in the eastern coasts of the Indian Subcontinent. Aforementioned examples could help to see how the active trade networks and the increase of the monastic system in the Indian Subcontinent permitted both the expansion of Buddhism towards the east, and also reinforced the cultural interactions between the people living along the Silk Roads. See also: Sayyid Bin Abu Ali, a True Representative of Intercultural Relations along the Maritime Silk Roads Thailand and the Maritime Silk Roads Greek Presence in Central Asia The Central Asian Maritime Silk Routes Izmir and the Silk Roads Baghdad and the Silk Roads The Old City of Sana’a The Perception of Astrology Astronomy along the Silk Roads Mapping and Compilation of the World Maps along the Silk Roads Muslim presence in the Korean Peninsula Muslim Monopoly along the Silk Roads The Interconnections between Portuguese and Malay languages Oman region, a Hub on the Maritime Trade Routes Interactions between Indian Subcontinent and Western Land during Roman Empire Trade Routes in Himalayan India Pakistan and the Silk Roads The Anatolian Silk Roads The Silk Routes of the Mongols The Southern Silk Roads The Great Silk Roads The large empires that emerged in the classical age created massive amounts of goods and became markets for imports. Several prominent trade systems developed that linked the empires together in a complex network of exchange that greatly exceeded that of the foundational and River Valley civilizations. Luxury goods and raw materials traveled in caravans and on boats to distant markets. Traveling with them were belief systems, ideas, technology, culture and diseases. Globally, these tranregional networks were limited to Eurasia and Africa in this time period. Trade networks that developed in Oceania and the Americas remained localized for the time being. I. Land and water routes became the basis for transregional trade, communication, and exchange networks in the Eastern Hemisphere.A. The major networks of trade that developed in the classical age were influenced by economic, cultural, environmental, and geographic factors. You should be familiar with the following examples of trade networks:
Oasis towns became stepping stones of cultural dissemination. and luxury goods were not the only things that moved across the Silk Roads. Merchants became agents of cultural diffusion. The oasis towns that connected segments of trade became nodes of cultural exchange, especially Buddhism. Mahayana Buddhism spread rapidly, leap-frogging from oasis town to oasis town. The process was facilitated by these towns which often built beautiful Buddhist temples to attract Buddhist merchants abroad. Nestorian Christianity also spread across the Silk Roads into China. Not surprisingly, silk took on a sacred meaning in Buddhist and Christian rituals. Merchants also carried disease. The disease epidemics that devastated the classical civilizations were spread across large ecological zones via the Silk Roads. The volume of trade increased dramatically as the classical empires formed. The Romans, Gupta, and Han were centers of production and huge markets for goods. Moreover, the laws and legal systems of these empires provided security for merchants, encouraging them to take more risks. As always, the primary items of trade were luxury goods, and nomadic people continued to play an important role; their movements sometimes served as important connections between segments of trade, buying in one place and selling in another. Some nomads became settled people and made their living off of trade. Nevertheless, the volume of trade on the Silk Roads was connected to the strength of the classical civilizations during this period and declined when they fell into ruin.
Trade reached a high point in this era when the entire Mediterranean region was united under Roman civilization. Mediterranean region. The most significant change in Mediterranean trade occurred when Carthage fell to Rome and the entire rim of the Mediterranean Sea was controlled by the Roman government. Roman laws were now enforced across the region, providing a consistent legal system. The wide spread use of Latin facilitated trade. Piracy on the Mediterranean Sea was controlled by the Roman navy. During this Roman period, trade reached its peak. Engulfed by Roman civilization, the Romans referred to the Mediterranean as mare nostrum ("our sea," Latin).[5] Like the Greeks before them, the Romans depended on massive grain imports to feed their urban centers, while silk was imported to satisfy the demands of the upper class. The Romans exported copper, tin, glass, wine and olive oil.
This coin from the Kushan Empire in central Asia depicts a god using a stirrup to ride a horse, c. 150 C.E. A. Land trade increased when people learned to use the power of animals for their benefit. The camel, originally a herd animal, was domesticated in the middle east for its use in the incense trade. Camels extended the scope and volume of trade in the arid Arabian climate. They carried military supplies for the Assyrian armies under the command of Sargon II.[6] These uses of the camel were made possible by the development of a saddle which allowed the animal to be loaded with much cargo. Camels could carry up to 50 percent more cargo than other pack animals, could go longer without water, and lived longer than most of them as well.The patterns of monsoon winds remain constant each year allowing merchants to time their departures for maximum efficiency. In Central Asia nomads domesticated the horse and became expert trainers, so much so that the Han dynasty traded silk with them for their horses. The invention of the stirrup, a small ring or strap that holds the feet of rider, allowed for much greater control of the animal. With new technologies such as the stirrup and saddle, pack animals permitted humans to greatly increase their ability to trade, travel, and communicate.B. Advances in technology aided maritime trade as well. On the Indian Ocean merchants were recognizing the seasonal patterns of monsoon winds and they began adapting their voyages to harness these winds. New technologies helped them adapt more efficiently to the dynamics of this trade route. The Dhow, a long slender boat with a lateen sail, became a common vessel for Indian Ocean trade. Although its origins are not completely clear, the Chinese, Arabs, and Indians were certainly involved in its creation and/or modification. The dhow was used for heavy items that were not as fit for land-based trade. One of its primary characteristics was the lateen sail which allowed sailors to tack against the wind. The dhow and lateen sail did for maritime trade what the saddle and stirrup did for land trade: they helped people widen networks of trade and communication thus accelerating the diffusion of goods, ideas, and culture.III. Alongside the trade in goods, the exchange of people, technology, religious and cultural beliefs, food crops, domesticated animals, and disease pathogens developed across far-flung networks of communication and exchange.A. Cotton is indigenous to South Asia and has a long history of cultivation in India. The Laws of Manu mentions cotton, and it appears in the Enquiry into Plants by the Greek writer Theophrastus, a contemporary of Plato and Aristotle.[7] As transregional networks of exchange expanded, cotton spread out of India into the Middle East where it placed strains on the agricultural systems there. In Persia, for example, wheat and barley could be planted in the Fall, remain dormant over winter, and left to sprout in the Spring, thus avoiding the terribly hot summer months of the Iranian piedmont. Cotton, on the other hand, is a summer crop, planted in April and harvested in the Fall. Consequently, much of Persia (modern day Iran) was initially too hot and dry to accommodate this important crop. The solution to this problem was the introduction of a new irrigation system known as the qanat system.[8]The Qanat used hydraulic and gravitational force to extract water from the ground without the use of any energy at all. By linking vertical shafts and gently sloping horizontal passages, water was drawn from the aquifer and released to the agricultural fields at a lower level. This system not only allowed for the cultivation of cotton, but was applied to other crops as well. The effect was profound. Qanats doubled the amount of available water for irrigation and urban use in Iran.[9] Persia was able to enjoy larger surpluses of agriculture thus increasing urbanization and social stratification.[10] The qanat system spread throughout the Middle East and as far as China. Rice was another crop that spread during this time period. First cultivated on the southern slopes of the Himalayas [11], it spread from China across the caravan routes of the central Asian steppes. Because Buddhist monks were vegetarian and avoided the meat-based diets of pastoral nomads, they would carry rice with them on their journeys across the steppes. Indeed, a Buddhist text called the Aggañña Sutta states that "rice grows as long as Buddhism spreads." [12]Sugarcane likewise spread during this time. It was first grown in India and probably spread through the Khyber pass, into Afghanistan, and then diffused across the central Asian caravan routes. [13]B. TheNote the limited spread of sugarcane before the coming of Islam. transregional movement of people and goods also facilitated the spread of disease pathogens. When Roman troops moved into Mesopotamia in the second century, a major epidemic of smallpox broke out among the soldiers stationed in Parthia. By 166 B.C.E. it spread across much of the Roman Empire, reaching the city of Rome itself. Enduring for 15 years, probably 10 percent of the population of the Roman Empire, about 5 million people, perished from disease. [14] Worse epidemics were to come. Merchant ships on maritime trade routes and pack animals on caravan routes introduced the Roman Empire to devastating epidemics. Horses, upon which Roman expansion and trade depended, were often the culprits for carrying diseases to humans. [15] Most historians consider these devastating epidemics a key factor in the fall of the western Roman Empire.Disease pathogens ravished Chinese civilization as well. Smallpox probably first arrived in China with the Huns around 250 B.C.E. [16] Contact with Roman civilization along the Silk Roads continually reintroduced China to smallpox and in the third and fourth centuries C.E., the disease destroyed half the population of northern China. After the fall of the Han Dynasty, bubonic plague spread from Constantinople to China, and Buddhist monks subsequently spread the plague to Japan. [17] As with Rome, each devastating epidemic weakened the foundations of civilization. It meant fewer men to be called up for military service, thus decreasing security. With fewer people to work in agriculture, food surpluses dropped, and with them, the basis for a complex society. Lastly, a sharp drop in the population deprived the government of taxpaying peasants making it difficult to fund the basic functions of the state. C. Trade routes not only diffuse the things merchants carry on their animals; they also spread the ideas and beliefs they carry in their heads. As major world religions spread from one area into another they adapted to local circumstances and preexisting traditions. Christianity, Hinduism and Buddhism all spread across trade routes far from their places of origin and all were modified in the process.The Spread and Transformation of Religions: Case Studies
A depiction of the Column of Constantine as it originally looked. The remains of the Column of Constantine today. its early gains, by the beginning of the 4th century Christianity was still a minority belief comprising perhaps only 5 percent of the Roman population. [20] By the end of that century it would be the official religion of the empire. The most important event in this dramatic change was when Roman Emperor Constantine converted to Christianity and, through the Edict of Milan, gave it official acceptance. Later in 392, Emperor Theodosius made it the official religion of the empire; he banned pagan ceremonies, shut down temples to Roman gods, and ordered idols destroyed. Now that Christianity was connected officially to the state, it grew wealthy. The Church solicited donations from the rich and could own land.[21] The empire constructed churches and dispatched missionaries. Christianity spread to new areas of Eastern Europe, in part, because two Byzantine missionaries created the Cyrillic alphabet for the Slavic spoken language. Christian morality was reinforced by the state through the Code of Justinian, which fused Christian teachings with Roman law. Supported by the Roman state, Christianity was propelled into a significant role in world history. As it benefited from imperial patronage Christianity returned the favor by endowing the state with religious legitimacy. The very model of Christianity--one God reigning supremely over the universe through a network of angels and saints--was complimentary to the model of Constantine ruling the empire through a centralized bureaucracy; the empire mirrored the hierarchical cosmology of Christianity. Constantine represented himself as one who ruled on God's behalf, not only performing the normal functions of political rule but making appointments to prominent church offices and intervening in doctrinal disputes.[22] This union of political and religious authority under one ruler was called caesaropapism. The Roman Empire, now reordered as a community of belief and union of church and state, laid claim to supernatural support. Although the political development of the fallen western half of the Roman Empire was much different than the eastern (Byzantine) half, Christianity became the religion of choice for kings there as well. As the Roman Catholic Church grew in power and prestige, Germanic kings converted to Catholicism in order to reinforce their political power. When Clovis I of the Franks converted to Catholic Christianity, it set him apart from other kings vying for power and put him in alliance with landholding elites of the former patrician classes.[23]In the eastern Byzantine Empire the best example of a politician using Christianity to legitimize authority was Constantine, particularly evident in the dedication of Constantinople in 330. Forty days of ceremonies, both Christian and pagan, surrounded this event. The Column of Constantine which was erected for this dedication was a repository of relics both Christian and pagan. The figure of Constantine at the top (no longer there today) held an orb containing a piece of the cross on which Jesus died. The base of the column held the ax used by Noah to build the ark, a surviving basket of bread from when Jesus fed a crowd, and Mary Magdaline's jar of ointment used to anoint the feet of Jesus. [24] But the figure of Constantine was clearly a model of Apollo, complete with rays of light emanating from his head in traditional Roman fashion. Alongside the Christian relics in the base were pagan items as well, such as the Palladium, a relic thought to bring the protection of the Roman gods upon whatever city possessed it. This blending of pagan and Christian symbolism made the new religion seem less threatening to traditionally minded Romans. But the statue of Constantine towering above both pagan and Christian symbols left no doubt as to who had absolute power.Discovered in 1625, the Nestorian Stele shows that the Tang Emperor recognized Christianity. Based as it was upon the Christian religion, the empire could not afford to tolerate alternate opinions about important Christian doctrines. Most divisive among these doctrines was who exactly Jesus was. Was he a man who became God, a God who became man, or a combination of the two simultaneously, and if so, how did the divine and human natures relate to each other? To settle these theological issues Constantine called the Council of Nicaea (325 C.E.) which outlined the empire's position on such issues. These "official" beliefs of Christianity, called orthodoxy, were enforced by the state. Heresy--any belief that deviated from orthodoxy--was condemned and suppressed within the boundary of the empire. This actually led to the diffusion of Christianity, as those whose Christian beliefs were condemned sought refuge outside the empire. For example, in 431, Nestorius--the patriarch of Constantinople--was condemned for his views about Jesus and Mary.[25] His followers, called Nestorians, formed Christian communities in the Persian Sassanid Empire to escape persecution in the Roman (Byzantine) lands. From Persia they made their way to the Silk Roads which became their routes across Eurasia. Nestorian Christianity went as far as China where they established communities in the early 7th century.[26] The famous Nestorian Stele, erected in the Chinese capital of Chang'an in 781, documents the early Christians who took their faith to China, as well as some basic Christian teachings. As it traveled the Silk Roads, Christianity adopted local practices and blended with local beliefs. Such adaptations aided its spread by "camouflaging its newness" before potential converts. [27] For example, Turks in Central Asia converted to Christianity because the practices of the Nestorian priests were nearly identical to that of their own shamans. The Christian cross was used as a charm to bring good weather and ward off evil spirits and disease. There were some mass conversions which have led scholars to speculate if the converts merely took Christianity as another form of "shamanism" that had demonstrated greater power. Although Christianity did not have the same success in China as Buddhism did, it merged there with other beliefs as well. A Christian monument in the Chinese capital of Xi'an included Daoist symbols of yin and yang along with the Buddhist lotus flower. Nestorian Christians in China preached the "Eight Cardinal Virtues," which were basically a restatement of the Buddhist Eight Fold Path. The message of Jesus became The Way (or the Dao) and saints were referred to as buddhas. [28]The Silk Roads were not the only trade route upon which Christianity spread. Through maritime routes, it made its way to Egypt and Axum and formed the Coptic Church. A kingdom in northern Ethiopia converted and retained a unique form of Christianity distinct from Catholic and Eastern Orthodox forms. Across the English channel, monks took Christianity to the British Isles where it was prone to Celtic influences. In short, Catholic and Orthodox forms of Christianity spread inside the borders of the Roman Empire while Nestorian and Coptic versions went beyond them. In all areas it absorbed influences from its host culture.
Never its fruits. With discipline perform actions, Abandoning attachments, and indifferent to success or failure.[34]This emphasis on action meant that members of the merchant caste, for example, were performing their religious duty by carrying on the activities of trade. Shorn of complicated rules and dependence upon sacred rituals, religious activity--once the exclusive domain of priests--was now open to anyone. This devotional form of Hinduism became extremely popular with the masses. To some degree, the new practice of Hinduism took on some of the characteristics of Mahayana Buddhism. As merchants spread their Hindu faith it became hard to tell the two apart. This is particularly true with a branch of Hinduism called bhakti which emerged in southern India and spread to the north.. Intensely passionate, this form of Hinduism stressed intense emotions directed at specific Hindu gods, most popularly Vishnu and Shiva. Despite the reputation Hinduism has of being a non-missionary religion, there is strong evidence that certain sects of Hindus actively sought to spread the religion. Through missionaries and merchants, the bhakti faith made its way to Southeast Asia and spread alongside Buddhism. Here the two religions blended to such an extent that believers often didn’t distinguish between them at all. Hindu temples, Buddhist stupas and monasteries blended the symbols and practices of both religions. [35] One attraction of Hinduism was that people did not have to give up their traditional gods to practice it. As an inclusive religion, Hinduism readily absorbs the gods and practices of other belief systems. It is a belief system about all belief systems. Interestingly, there is no term for the process of conversion in the religion of Hinduism. [36]
A stupa in India commissioned by Ashoka. Ashoka’s reign a cult of relics developed in Buddhism. A relic is an object connected to an important religious person, such as the ashes or belongings of a well known Buddhist monk. The most sacred relics were those from The Buddha, most commonly a piece of his garment, wood from the tree under which he found enlightenment, or even a bone from his finger. For many Buddhist, those in possession of a relic were thought to have the religious authority of the Buddha himself. Relics gave legitimacy to those in possession of them. [40] According to legend, Ashoka divided and sent out 84,000 relics to the same number of locations. [41] He built Stupas—houses of meditation used to hold relics—for each of them. In a religion with no centralized bureaucracy or official priesthood, relics legitimized the status of monasteries and monks. Managing and dispensing them was a prominent force in the spread of Buddhism after Ashoka’s rule. Ashoka was not the only king to support Buddhism. After the fall of the Gupta, the northern plains of India and much of Central Asia was a patchwork of small kingdoms. One of the most difficult challenges for these kings was trying to bind people of different language and ethnic identities into a loyal group. In that regard, kings found Buddhism a useful tool. Like Christianity, Buddhism is a universal religion. Not limited to a single tribe or location, it describes a condition of humanity that is true in all places and times. Because Buddhism appealed to a universal human condition it could help bridge "kinship or ethnic differences." [42] It made sense to people no matter where they were and gave kings the ability to appeal to those outside their domain. By funding distant monasteries and bestowing them with lavish gifts, kings could gain wide prestige. They could also extend their influence. After Buddhism became wide-spread in China, the political advantages it could leverage were not lost on Sui emperors. In 583, a monk at a government sponsored monastery translated a Buddhist text to imply that Emperor Wen was a reincarnated bodhisattva. A few years later, this emperor claimed that the Buddha himself had entrusted him with the authority to rule China. [43] Buddha, it would seem, was now the source of the Mandate of Heaven. As it gained ground in China Buddhism experienced profound changes. The monastic life was particularly offensive for Chinese because it ran contrary to Confucian notions of proper human relationships. [44] In China, for example, filial piety--goodness and care shown to one's parents-- is central to a properly functioning society. How was the life of the solitary monk to be reconciled with the obligations of filial piety? Through syncretism. In Chinese Buddhism the monastic life came to be understood as a way to generate karma for one's family and ancestors. Thus, living in a monastery could satisfy the Confucian requirement of filial piety; it was a means to care for parents and elders by earning karma for them. Much of the transformation of Buddhism in China occurred because Buddhist texts had to be translated. Indian terms did not have exact equivalents in Chinese so translators chose familiar Chinese terms to take the place of Buddhist words. For example, the Chinese word wu-wei, which means to allow events to unfold naturally, replaced the Sanskrit word Nirvana. Likewise, the Buddhist word for Dharma was translated into the Chinese texts as The Dao. The meanings of these important terms thus shifted into ideas already deeply rooted in Chinese culture. Buddhism did not seem as foreign as it actually was. The transformation of Buddhism in China (and elsewhere) allowed people to convert without having to completely reject previous beliefs and practices.[45]#religion_spread References
Which of the following was most responsible for the initial spread of Islam to West Africa?Islam first came to West Africa as a slow and peaceful process, spread by Muslim traders and scholars. The early journeys across the Sahara were done in stages. Goods passed through chains of Muslim traders, purchased, finally, by local non-Muslims at the southern most end of the route.
What initially caused the creation of trade across Eurasia?The expansion of empires—including the Mongols—facilitated Afro-Eurasian trade and communication as new people were drawn into their conquerors' economies and trade networks.
Which of the following was the most important factor in the spread of the bubonic plague?Flea. Though historically rats have been blamed for the spread of the bubonic plague in the medieval pandemic of the Black Death, it was in fact the humble flea that spread this bacterial infection to humans and animals alike.
Which statement best characterizes Islam's attitude toward trade?What is classical Islam's attitude toward trade? Islam was friendly to commercial life and trade.
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