What caused the study of cognition to be discouraged during the first half of the 20th century?

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1. What does the term "cognition" refer to?

a. focusing awareness of a narrow range of stimuli or events

b

. mental processes involved in acquiring and using knowledge

c

. widely shared beliefs that are transmitted socially across generations

d

. use of language in a social context

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: p. 349 BLM: Remember

2. Why was the study of cognition discouraged during the first half of the 20th century?

a. Cognition was not considered to be a psychological function.

b

. Earlier studies using the method of introspection had yielded unreliable results.

c

. Psychodynamic theories were too dominant in the field.

d

. Language acquisition was viewed as an innate process that could not be studied empirically.

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: p. 349 BLM: Remember

3. Which of the following is NOT a cognitive activity?

a. solving a problem

b

. remembering something

c

. blinking at something

d

. making a decision

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: p. 349 BLM: Higher order

4. Which of the following types of activity best characterizes our ability to reason?

a. learned

b

. behavioural

c

. objective

d

. cognitive

ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: p. 349 BLM: Higher order

5. What are the adjectives that describe the four essential characteristics of language?

a. symbolic, generative, phonemic, and structured

b

. syntactic, symbolic, generative, and semantic

c

. semantic, symbolic, structured, and generative

d

. generative, rule governed, phonemic, and syntactic

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: p. 350 BLM: Remember

6. The symbols used in a language are arbitrary. What does this mean?

a. The symbols have the same meaning to everyone.

b

. There is a built-in relationship between the sound of the symbols and the con-cepts they stand for.

c

. There is a built-in relationship between the look of the symbols and the concepts they stand for.

d

. There is no built-in relationship between the symbols and the concepts they stand for.

ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: p. 350 BLM: Higher order

7. There are different sounds across languages that all represent the same thing. Which quality of language does this reflect?

a. semantic

b

. generative

c

. cross-cultural

d

. structural

ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: p. 350 BLM: Higher order

8. What do we mean when we say that language is generative?

a. The symbols used in the language are arbitrary.

b

. Language is both written and oral.

c

. A limited number of symbols can be combined to produce an infinite variety of messages.

d

. Sentences must be structured in a limited number of ways.

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: p. 350 BLM: Remember

9. Language allows a person to express new ideas. Which quality of language does this reflect?

a. the symbolic dimension of language

b

. the constructive function of language

c

. the generative quality of language

d

. the invention dimension of language

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: p. 350 BLM: Higher order

10. Language has rules that govern the arrangement of words into phrases and sentences. What quality of language does this reflect?

a. phonemic

b

. continuity

c

. structured

d

. generative

11. Imagine that a race of extraterrestrials came to earth. These extraterrestrials quickly learned to use Earth words to convey meaningful messages, but they never created new combinations of words or learned how to use rules to create meaningful sentences. Which of the following would be true of their communications?

a. They would have all the requirements for language.

b

. They would not be generative or structured, but would be symbolic and semantic.

c

. They would lack all the essential elements of language.

d

. They would not be symbolic or semantic, but would be generative and structured.

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: p. 350 BLM: Higher order

12. Imagine that a race of extraterrestrials came to earth. These extraterrestrials quickly learned to use Earth words to convey meaningful messages, and they were able to communicate effec-tively about unique aspects of their planet in meaningful sentences. Which of the following would be true of their communications?

a. They would not be generative or structured, but would be symbolic and semantic.

b

. They would have all the essential requirements for language.

c

. They would not be semantic or generative, but would be structured and symbolic.

d

. They would not be symbolic or semantic, but would be generative and structured.

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: p. 350 BLM: Higher order

13. How many phonemes does the English language use?

a. approximately 450,000 phonemes, one for each word

b

. 26 phonemes, one for each letter of the alphabet

c

. about 40 phonemes, corresponding to the letters of the alphabet plus several vari-ations

d

. all of the 100 or so phonemes that humans are capable of producing

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: p. 350 BLM: Remember

14. Which component of spoken language are phonemes the smallest units of?

a. meaning

b

. sound

c

. dialect

d

. syntax

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: p. 350 BLM: Remember

15. Which of the following statements is least accurate?

a. A letter of the alphabet is represented by more than one phoneme if it has more than one pronunciation.

b

. All languages use all of the phonemes of which humans are capable.

c

. Humans are capable of producing about 100 phonemes.

d

. Phonemes are combined into morphemes.

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: p. 350 BLM: Higher order

16. Three-year-old Isaiah used to say "mikk" when he wanted a drink of milk. Now he is able to say "milk" quite clearly. What language component has Isaiah improved in this instance?

a. morphemes

b

. phonemes

c

. syntax

d

. linguistic heuristics

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: p. 350 BLM: Higher order

17. Last Halloween, 4-year-old Jillian called the decorations at her house "pukkins." This year she is able to say "pumpkins" when she describes them. What language component has Jillian improved in this instance?

a. morphemes

b

. syntax

c

. phonemes

d

. linguistic heuristics

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: p. 350 BLM: Higher order

18. Which component of spoken language are morphemes the smallest unit of?

a. syntax

b

. sound

c

. dialect

d

. meaning

ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: p. 351 BLM: Remember

19. What is the smallest unit of meaning in a language?

a. phrase

b

. morpheme

c

. phoneme

d

. word

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: p. 351 BLM: Remember

20. What occurs when the word "oat" is changed to the word "boat"?

a. The number of phonemes increase, but the number of morphemes stay the same.

b

. The number of phonemes and morphemes both increase.

c

. The number of phonemes stay the same, but the number of morphemes increase.

d

. The number of phonemes decrease, but the number of morphemes increase.

21. What occurs when the word "able" is changed to the word "table"?

a. The number of phonemes and morphemes both increase.

b

. The number of phonemes decrease, but the number of morphemes increase.

c

. The number of phonemes stay the same, but the number of morphemes increase.

d

. The number of phonemes increase, but the number of morphemes stay the same.

ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: p. 351 BLM: Higher order

22. What occurs when the word "jar" is changed to the word "jars"?

a. The numbers of phonemes and morphemes both increase.

b

. The number of phonemes decreases, but the number of morphemes increases.

c

. The number of phonemes increases, but the number of morphemes stays the same.

d

. The number of phonemes stays the same, but the number of morphemes increas-es.

ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: p. 351 BLM: Higher order

23. How many morphemes are in the word "unchangeable"?

a. one morpheme, for the entire word

b

. four morphemes, one for each syllable

c

. nine morphemes, one for each letter of the alphabet used

d

. three morphemes: "un," "change," and "able"

ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: p. 351 BLM: Higher order

24. Which of the following words has the same number of morphemes as the word 'unbeliever'?

a. triangle

b

. silly

c

. privilege

d

. resented

ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: p. 351 BLM: Higher order

25. What is the function of the component of language called semantics?

a. understanding the meaning of words and word combinations

b

. creating novel messages from a finite number of symbols

c

. specifying rules for how words can be arranged into sentences

d

. correctly pronouncing the prefixes, suffixes, and root words of a language

ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: p. 351 BLM: Remember

26. What is the denotation of a word?

a. a complex interaction between the word's phonology and syntax

b. its dictionary definition

c

. its emotional overtones and secondary implications

d

. the separate sounds that make up the word

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: p. 351 BLM: Remember

27. What is the connotation of a word?

a. the separate sounds that make up the word

b

. its emotional overtones and secondary implications

c

. its dictionary definition

d

. a complex interaction between the word's phonology and syntax

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: p. 351 BLM: Remember

28. Which of the following would change depending on whether you used a word in a literal sentence or a sarcastic sentence?

a. denotation

b

. phonemes

c

. connotation

d

. morphemes

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: p. 351 BLM: Higher order

29. Which component of language allows you to recognize that "give" and "take" have opposite meanings?

a. generativity

b

. semantics

c

. syntax

d

. phonology

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: p. 351 BLM: Remember

30. A declarative sentence must have both a noun phrase and a verb phrase. Which type of rule is this an example of?

a. transformational rule

b

. rule of syntax

c

. rule of denotation

d

. semantic rule

31. What type of rule does syntax refer to?

a. combining morphemes into words

b

. combining phonemes to form morphemes

c

. arranging words into phrases and sentences

d

. using words symbolically

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: p. 351 BLM: Remember

32. Which of the following statements is most accurate?

a. Rules of syntax underlie all language use.

b

. Syntax is the first component of language to be mastered by children.

c

. If speakers can use a rule of syntax, they will also be able to verbalize it.

d

. The process by which we learn the rules of syntax is well understood by psycho-linguists.

ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: p. 351 BLM: Remember

33. The sentence, "The nervous the stared thick at exam student" would be virtually impossible for an English speaker to understand. Which type of rule is being violated?

a. syntax

b

. psycholinguistics

c

. heuristic

d

. denotation

ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: p. 351 BLM: Higher order

34. Last year, 5-year-old Alonda would say "No he coming" when explaining to her younger sister that their older brother would be staying home. Now Alonda will tell her sister "He's not coming." Which aspect of language does this example illustrate development in?

a. linguistic relativity

b

. phonemes

c

. morphemes

d

. syntax

ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: p. 351 BLM: Higher order

35. What is produced in "babbling"?

a. different cries to signify different kinds of discomfort

b

. a wide variety of phonemes and consonant-vowel combinations

c

. sound, by placing the tongue near the back of the mouth

d

. random combinations of words

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: p. 352-353 BLM: Remember

36. At about what age do babies start babbling?

abirth

.

b

. 1 month

c

. 3 months

d

. 6 months

ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: p. 352-353 BLM: Remember

37. Which of the following statements is most accurate?

a. Babies initially babble the sounds used in many different languages.

b

. Babies babble only sounds that are part of the parents' language.

c

. Babbling simply involves imitation of the parents' speech sounds.

d

. Babbling emerges only in infants who are not exposed to correct speech.

ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: p. 352 BLM: Remember

38. Which of the following statements is least accurate?

a. The sounds babbled by babies from different cultures are different right from the start.

b

. Infants; first words are similar, even in different languages.

c

. Infants' first words are likely to consist of sounds that are easy to produce.

d

. Infants' first words resemble the syllables they babble spontaneously.

ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: p. 352 BLM: Higher order

39. What should you expect to find if you were to compare adult speech with the variety of noises made by infants under six months of age?

a. Adults are capable of producing more phonemes than are infants.

b

. Adults and infants both use the same number of phonemes.

c

. Infants produce more phonemes than adults do.

d

. Infants produce more morphemes than adults do.

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: p. 352 BLM: Higher order

40. You are at a daycare centre and you hear three 12-month-old babies babbling, each baby from a different racial/ethnic background (Asian, Hispanic, and Caucasian). What should be true of the babbling of each of these infants?

a. It will sound very similar, because maturation is the major determinant of lan-guage acquisition during the first year.

b. It will consist mainly of two-word phrases (telegraphic speech).

c

. It will consist mainly of vowel sounds, because consonant sounds don't usually emerge until 14 months of age.

d

. It will sound very different, with each child's babbles sounding quite similar to the parents' native language.

41. At about what age are a child's first words generally spoken?

a. 3 to 5 months

b

. 6 to 8 months

c

. 10 to 13 months

d

. 18 to 21 months

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: p. 352-353 BLM: Remember

42. Which of the following situations would lead you to suspect that the child has a language development problem?

a. A three-year-old child uses grammar correctly around 75 percent to 80 percent of the time.

b

. A five-year-old child can use language much better than a chimpanzee.

c

. A two-year-old child babbles and uses a few words.

d

. A one-year-old child understands a few words and can say a few words.

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: p. 352-353 BLM: Higher order

43. Valerie is 18 months old. What should her productive vocabulary consist of?

a. 100 to 200 words

b

. fewer than 3 words

c

. about 500 words

d

. 3 to 50 words

ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: p. 353 BLM: Higher order

44. In general, which of the following is true of toddlers' language abilities?

a. They understand more words than they can say.

b

. They can say more words than they understand.

cThey understand and say about the same number of words.

.

d

. They say a lot of words, but we have no idea what they actually understand.

ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: p. 353 BLM: Higher order

45. Jenna is 14 months old and uses only "bottle," "no," "up," "bye-bye," "mama," and "dada" when she talks. However, when her father tells Jenna to get her blue bunny from the bedroom and bring it to him, Jenna quickly runs to get the bunny. What does this example illustrate?

a. Jenna is able to overextend her current vocabulary, when the situation demands it.

b

. Jenna likely has a speech impediment.

c

. Infants have difficulty pronouncing phonemes they have never heard.

d

. Toddlers' receptive vocabularies are larger than their productive vocabularies.

ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: p. 353 BLM: Higher order

46. Evidence was presented in the Featured Study about babbling in the manual mode. What did that study suggest about babbling?

a. It is specifically related to maturation of the vocal tract.

b

. It is emitted by deaf infants, but they cannot use it for communication.

c

. It is an important component of language development, regardless of the modali-ty.

d

. It is an important component of spoken speech, but not signed speech.

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: p. 354 BLM: Remember

47. What must be true about babbling if infants who are learning sign language show evidence of manual babbling (using sign-language-based babbling), but other infants show only vocal babbling?

a. It is related to maturation processes that are unrelated to speech.

b

. It is important for development of more than just language and vocal skills.

c

. It is related to language acquisition in general, rather than just vocal speech.

d

. It is related to motor development in general.

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: p. 354 BLM: Higher order

48. What is fast mapping?

a. pacing of activity associated with gene expression

b

. relating words to underlying concepts after only one exposure

c

. a type of play a child engages in at an early age

d

. development of a mental representation of one's environment

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: p. 355 BLM: Remember

49. Seamus heard of and ate ice cream for the first time yesterday. All day today he has been asking for ice cream. What does this example illustrate?

a. overextension

b

. metalinguistic awareness

c

. semantic slanting

d

. fast mapping

ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: p. 355 BLM: Higher order

50. Which of the following is a case of overextension?

a. A word is incorrectly used to describe the opposite of its true meaning.

b

. A child uses a single word to signify an entire phrase or sentence.

c

. A word is incorrectly used for a wider set of objects or actions than it applies to.

d

. A child's vocabulary has become overly large.

51. Kailee has learned the word "kitty," but she uses this word when she is referring to cats, bunnies, squirrels, and other small furry animals. What does this example illustrate?

a. babbling

b

. fast mapping

c

. telegraphic speech

d

. overextension

ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: p. 356 BLM: Higher order

52. Roberto knows how to say "red," but when his cousin asks him to name the colours of the cars that drive past their house, he says red for the red cars, the blue cars, the green cars, and the black cars. What does this example illustrate?

a. telegraphic speech

b

. overextension

c

. fast mapping

d

. babbling

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: p. 356 BLM: Higher order

53. Overextensions are more common in children's production of words than in their comprehen-sion of words. What does this imply about the use of overextensions?

a. Toddlers cannot yet combine words into sentences.

b

. Children's vocabulary growth occurs at a very rapid pace.

c

. Toddlers must rely on a very limited vocabulary to express themselves.

d

. Toddlers can't consistently identify objects to which different words apply.

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: p. 356 BLM: Higher order

54. When a child incorrectly uses a word to describe a narrower set of objects or actions than it is meant to, which type of error is a child making?

a. underextension

b

. telegraphic speech

c

. overextension

d

. undergeneralization

ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: p. 356 BLM: Remember

55. Which of the following would constitute underextension, if done by a three-year-old child?

a. using the word 'dress' for all items of clothing

b

. only using the word 'kitty' to refer to her own cat and not others

c

. forgetting the word 'banana' because it was just learned today

d

. leaving words out of sentences, while retaining the basic meaning

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: p. 356 BLM: Higher order

56. You are listening to two-year-old Annie as she says "No eat. No like." She is trying to let you know that she is not going to eat her broccoli because she doesn't like it. What does Annie's communication illustrate?

a. telegraphic speech

b

. overregularization

c

. semantic slanting

d

. underextension

ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: p. 356 BLM: Higher order

57. Two-year-old Owen rushes into the kitchen and tells his sister: "Baby throw. Baby bad." He wants her to know that his baby brother is bad because he just threw his toys on the floor. What does Owen's communication illustrate?

a. overregularization

b

. underextension

c

. semantic slanting

d

. telegraphic speech

ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: p. 356 BLM: Higher order

58. Which of the following statements is most accurate?

a. Telegraphic speech is more prevalent in Western cultures than in non-Western cultures.

b

. The emergence of telegraphic speech is unique to the English language.

c

. The emergence of telegraphic speech is a cross-cultural, universal aspect of lan-guage development.

d

. Although telegraphic speech occurs in many languages, it is not a universal as-pect of language development.

ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: p. 356 BLM: Remember

59. By what age do children generally master linguistic concepts like plural, or past-tense?

a. 3

b

. 2

c

. 4

d

. 5

ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: p. 356 BLM: Remember

60. Dale is in Grade 5 and his sister Alina is in Grade 3. What major difference would you expect in comparing their vocabularies?

a. Dale's will contain several hundred more words than Alina's.

b

. Dale's will contain approximately 20 000 more words than Alina's.

c

. Dale's will be only slightly larger than Alina's, but will contain very few errors.

d

. Dale's vocabulary will be similar in size, but his syntax will be far superior.

61. A child uses word "wented" as the past tense of the verb "to go." What is he using?

a. a metalinguistic transformation

b

. semantic slanting

c

. motherese to express the past tense

d

. a general rule in a case where it does not apply

ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: p. 356 BLM: Higher order

62. Which of the following errors is a child making who says, "I sawed a cat in the yard," (when he really meant that he saw the cat)?

a. overextension

b

. underextension

c

. overregularization

d

. underregularization

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: p. 356 BLM: Higher order

63. Four-year-old Nina says, "I runned all the way home." What does this likely indicate?

a. Nina hears improper verb forms spoken in her home.

b

. Nina has forgotten the correct way to form the past tense.

c

. Nina is still relying on telegraphic speech to convey meaning.

d

. Nina is overregularizing a grammatical rule.

ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: p. 356 BLM: Higher order

64. Which of the following statements is least accurate?

a. Overregularizations occur only in English, which has numerous irregular verbs.

b

. Overregularizations are more common in children's comprehension of words than in their production of words.

c

. Overregularizations decline when school-age children are formally taught subtle exceptions to grammatical rules.

d

. Overregularizations reflect the fact that children do not acquire the rules of grammar in a single leap.

ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: p. 356 BLM: Higher order

65. What is metalinguistic awareness?

aknowledge of which verbs are irregular

.

b

. awareness of the role of positive reinforcement in language acquisition

c

. the ability to reflect on the use of language

d

. the tendency to recognize one's own grammatical errors

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: p. 356 BLM: Remember

66. Seven-year-old Travis heard a joke in school and asks you, "How could you find a lost dog in the woods?" When you are stumped, he tells you, "You stand near a tree and listen for the bark." What is Travis developing, based on this play on words?

a. the ability to use linguistic heuristics

b

. psycholinguistic skills

c

. metalinguistic awareness

d

. linguistic relativity

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: p. 356 BLM: Higher order

Jesse was playing with marbles when one of the marbles fell into a heating vent in the floor. Jesse could see the marble, but he couldn't reach it because the slats of the vent were too close together for his hand, and he couldn't remove the lid. Jesse said, rather sarcastically to himself "Well, that's just fabulous." He looked around the room for something that he could use to retrieve the marble. When he saw his juice glass with the straw in it, he got an idea. He took the straw, carefully lowered it into the vent until it touched the marble. Then he sucked really hard on the straw so that it 'grabbed' the marble as he gently raised it back up into his waiting hand. Quite pleased with himself, and a little dizzy, Jesse went back to playing marbles.

67. Which of the following was Jesse demonstrating when he used sarcasm?

a. metalinguistic awareness

b

. telegraphic speech

c

. overregularization

d

. fast mapping

ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: p. 356 BLM: Higher order

68. Which of the following minimum ages would you expect Jesse to be, based on his use of sarcasm?

a. 3 years

b

. 9 years

c

. 12 years

d

. 6 years

ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: p. 356 BLM: Higher order

69. Which sort of basic problem does Jesse have to solve when he is confronted with a marble that he can't reach?

aproblem of arrangement

.

b

. problem of transformation

c

. an algorithmic problem

d

. problem of inducing structure

ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: p. 365 BLM: Higher order

70. As Jesse was attempting to solve the problem, he got an idea when he saw the straw in the juice glass. What is the term that is used for recognizing a solution to a problem in this way?

a. field dependence

b

. anagram

c

. mental set

d

. insight

71. What did it illustrate when Jesse recognized that the straw could be used for something other than drinking juice?

a. using an algorithm

b

. overcoming functional fixedness

c

. overcoming the problem space

d

. using a trial-and-error approach

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: p. 367 BLM: Higher order

72. Which of the following is true of bilingualism?

a. Bilinguals score higher than monolinguals in metalinguistic awareness.

b

. Bilinguals score lower than monolinguals in selective attention and cognitive flexibility.

c

. Bilinguals are faster than monolinguals in language-processing speed.

d

. Bilingualism has a significant, negative effect on overall language development.

ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: p. 357 BLM: Remember

73. Dr. Phranal is studying cognitive flexibility and selective attention in bilingual and monolin-gual adults. What pattern is Dr. Phranal most likely to see in the test scores of bilingual par-ticipants, based on the evidence from previous research studies?

a. They score higher in cognitive flexibility, but lower in selective attention.

b

. They score lower in cognitive flexibility, but higher in selective attention.

c

. They score lower in both cognitive flexibility and selective attention.

d

. They score higher in both cognitive flexibility and selective attention.

ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: p. 357 BLM: Higher order

74. If Annette is learning two languages, what will be the impact of bilingualism on the develop-ment of her vocabulary?

a. The size of her vocabulary will be smaller in each language, but the total of the two will be similar to the vocabulary of a monolingual child.

b

. The size of her vocabulary will be normal in each language.

c

. The size of her vocabulary will be enhanced in each language.

d

. The size of her vocabulary, when both languages are added together, will be smaller than that of a monolingual child.

ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: p. 357 BLM: Higher order

75. What happens when children and adults attempt to learn a second language?

a. Adults show greater mastery in acquiring a second language, when compared to young children.

b

. When acquiring a second language, children master vocabulary faster, but adults master syntax faster.

c

. In general, adults and young children do not differ in mastering a second lan-guage.

d

. Young children show greater mastery in acquiring a second language, when compared to adults.

ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: p. 359 BLM: Remember

76. A 40-year-old couple emigrates from Poland to England. They have an 18-year-old son and a 9-year-old daughter. What should you expect about their second-language learning based on research that has investigated mastery of English as a second language?

a. The entire family will master English at about the same rate.

b

. Both the son and the father will master English much more quickly than the fe-males in the family.

c

. The 9-year-old daughter will master English more quickly than her parents and her brother.

d

. The parents will master English much more quickly than either of their two chil-dren.

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: p. 359 BLM: Higher order

77. Desmond moves to a new place where the language is different from his first language. What effect should you see on Desmond's ability to learn the new language if he doesn't really like his new home, and doesn't really try to fit in with the new culture?

a. His acquisition will not be affected by his motivation, because it is primarily based on experience.

b

. His acquisition will be affected by his age and intelligence, but not by motiva-tional factors.

c

. His acquisition will be enhanced, because he will not be distracted by cultural differences.

d

. His acquisition will be slowed by his lack of motivation to fit in.

ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: p. 359-360 BLM: Higher order

78. In some early studies, researchers attempted to teach chimpanzees to speak. What conclusions led to these studies being discontinued?

a. The reinforcement contingencies used in these studies were highly stressful for chimpanzees.

b

. Chimpanzees lack the necessary vocal equipment to produce human speech sounds.

c

. Chimpanzees lack the cognitive capacity to understand and produce language.

dHumans are the only species that is capable of conscious communication.

.

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: p. 360 BLM: Remember

79. What have we learned from studies in which researchers have attempted to teach chimpanzees and bonobos to use nonverbal language (i.e., sign language or communication boards)?

a. Some have appeared to learn many words, and have combined words in appro-priate ways.

b

. They are capable of learning language to a level equivalent to that seen in 10-year-old children.

c

. They are not capable of acquiring nonverbal communication.

d

. They can use nonverbal methods to communicate with other primates, but not with humans.

ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: p. 360-361 BLM: Remember

80. What type of understanding is illustrated by Kanzi (the famous bonobo) and his ability to distinguish between "Pour the Coke in the lemonade" and "Pour the lemonade in the Coke"?

a. syntax, but not semantics

b

. both syntax and semantics

c

. neither syntax nor semantics

d

. semantics, but not syntax

81. Pinker and Bloom (1992) suggest that which of the following are humans able to do because of language, an evolutionary adaptation?

a. avoid heuristic fallacies

b

. acquire information about the world secondhand

c

. engage in more efficient introspection

d

. use trial-and-error learning more effectively

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: p. 362 BLM: Higher order

82. Which of the following is NOT one of the evolutionary advantages that language may have provided?

a. reproductive and mating advantages

b

. more rapid classical conditioning

c

. more efficient hunting and gathering

d

. avoidance of predators and other dangers

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: p. 362 BLM: Remember

83. According to Pinker and Bloom, how many generations would it have taken for Neanderthals to become extinct if the acquisition of language produced a 1percent difference in mortality rates among overlapping Neanderthal and human populations?

a. 4000 generations

b

. 30 generations

c

. 10 generations

d

. 30 000 generations

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: p. 362 BLM: Remember

84. According to Pinker and Bloom, if the acquisition of language was a trait variation that produced just 1 percent more offspring per generation, how long would it take to see an in-crease in prevalence from 0.1 percent to 99.9 percent?

a. 4000 generations

b

. 3 generations

c

. 30 generations

d

. 40 000 generations

ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: p. 362 BLM: Remember

85. Why do children learn a language, according to Skinner?

a. It is a natural consequence of cognitive maturation, as the quality of thought im-proves with age.

b

. They imitate, and then parents provide reinforcement and shaping.

c

. It is a natural consequence of a complex and mature brain.

d

. They possess an innate language acquisition device.

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: p. 362 BLM: Remember

86. Why does children's pronunciation improve over time, according to learning theory?

a. The brain matures with age.

b

. The quality of their problem-solving ability improves.

c

. Transformational rules are mastered.

d

. Parents insist on closer and closer approximations of the correct word before they provide reinforcement.

ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: p. 362 BLM: Remember

87. Dr. Prasad believes that experience with reinforcement determines which specific aspects of language an individual will eventually master. Which of the following theorists would be most likely to agree with Dr. Prasad?

a. theorist Benjamin Whorf

b

. theorist Noam Chomsky

c

. theorist B. F. Skinner

d

. theorist Herbert Simon

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: p. 362 BLM: Higher order

88. Which of the following is a criticism of the behaviourist model of language acquisition?

a. Children don't seem to learn transformational rules as Skinner said they should.

b

. It is unreasonable to expect children to learn an infinite number of sentences by imitation.

c

. Children don't respond to positive reinforcement until they are in preschool, after language is already established.

d

. Its concepts are extremely vague.

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: p. 362 BLM: Remember

89. Overregularizations occur as children master language skills. Which theory of language development does this provide evidence against?

a. behavioural

b

. linguistic relativity

c

. interactionist

d

. nativist

ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: p. 362 BLM: Higher order

90. Mrs. Bond seldom corrects her 4-year-old's grammatical errors, such as "Her drinked my milk." However, she is careful to correct factual errors, such as "Tiger ate his milk." Which of the following theories would be inconsistent with this example assuming Mrs. Bond's child develops normal language skills?

a. the nativist view of language development

b

. the behavioural view of language development

c

. all major theories of language development

d

. the transformational theory of language development

121. You have a pair of pliers and a bag of nuts in the shell. You are lamenting the fact that you can't shell the nuts because you do not have a nutcracker. Which of the following problems is demonstrated by your inability to perceive the pliers as a makeshift nutcracker?

a. mental set

b

. insight insufficiency

c

. functional fixedness

d

. heuristic reasoning

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: p. 367 BLM: Higher order

122. Claudia wants to send a fragile vase to her parents for their anniversary, but she can't find any

appropriate packing material in her house. She decides to pop some popcorn and use that to pack around the vase. What has Claudia done in this case?

a. overcome functional fixedness in solving her problem

b

. effectively utilized the availability heuristic in solving her problem

c

. utilized an elimination-by-aspects strategy to solve her problem

d

. demonstrated functional fixedness in solving her problem

ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: p. 367 BLM: Higher order

123. When Quentin sprained his ankle in a backyard softball game, his girlfriend grabbed a bag of frozen corn from the freezer to wrap around his ankle until they got him to the local clinic. What did Quentin's girlfriend do in this case?

a. She effectively utilized the availability heuristic.

b

. She was able to overcome functional fixedness.

c

. She demonstrated a mental set in treating Quentin's sprained ankle.

d

. She successfully utilized an elimination-by-aspects strategy.

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: p. 367 BLM: Higher order

124. Which of the following statements concerning age and functional fixedness is most accurate?

a. All age groups are likely to show evidence of functional fixedness, especially when solving problems using unfamiliar objects.

b

. Compared to all other age groups, adolescents are most likely to show evidence of functional fixedness.

c

. Compared to young children, older children and adults are less likely to show evidence of functional fixedness.

d

. Compared to older children and adults, young children are less likely to show evidence of functional fixedness.

ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: p. 367 BLM: Remember

125. Kareem is working on a practical problem with his 16-year-old son, Josh, and his 8-year-old daughter, Lisa. They don't have the right tools for the job, and they need to come up with a creative solution that uses the items they have available. Based on research findings into the prevalence of functional fixedness, what should you predict?

a. Lisa is most likely to come up with a solution because, in general, young children are less vulnerable to functional fixedness.

b

. Either Kareem or Josh is most likely to come up with a solution because, in gen-eral, males are less vulnerable to functional fixedness.

c

. Josh is most likely to come up with a solution because, in general, older children and adolescents are less vulnerable to functional fixedness.

d

. Kareem is most likely to come up with a solution because, in general, adults are less vulnerable to functional fixedness.

ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: p. 367 BLM: Higher order

126. What are you demonstrating if you tend to persist in using the same problem-solving strategy time after time?

a. delusion

b

. mental set

c

. illusion

dgeneric insight

.

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: p. 367 BLM: Remember

127. Eva just upgraded her software package. However, even though the updated version contains a number of more efficient methods for working with files, Eva continues to work with files the way she did before the upgrade. What is Eva showing evidence of in this case?

a. belief perseverance

b

. priming

c

. the availability heuristic

d

. mental set

ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: p. 367 BLM: Higher order

128. Riley's algebra teacher is amazed at the creativity Riley shows in solving homework problems. He seldom uses the same method on two consecutive problems, even when the problems are very similar in content and structure. Although Riley makes lots of mistakes in algebra, what is he unlikely to experience?

a. mental set in his problem solving

b

. functional fixedness in his problem solving

c

. overregularization in his problem solving

d

. noncompensatory problem solving

ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: p. 367 BLM: Higher order

129. You are a CEO for a large company and you are interested in making some changes to the way that the company runs. You would like to see some creativity in administrative processes, rather than simply continuing the way things have always been done. Which of the following should you do?

a. Hire new managers from outside the company, because the existing managers are vulnerable to the effects of mental set.

b

. Encourage retired managers to come back temporarily, because experienced managers would be less vulnerable to the effects of mental set.

c

. Promote young employees to positions of power, because young adults are more likely to take advantage of functional fixedness.

d

. Hire more women for management positions, because women are less vulnerable to functional fixedness.

ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: p. 368 BLM: Higher order

130. In attempting to solve the "nine dot problem" many individuals will not attempt to draw a line outside the imaginary boundary surrounding the nine dots. This is not a rule associated with the problem, but is imposed by the problem solver. What is this an example of?

a. trial-and-error learning

bfunctional fixedness

.

c

. mental set

d

. unnecessary constraints

141. In which case will working backward to solve a problem be an effective strategy?

a. when a problem has a well-defined endpoint

b

. when it is necessary to change the representation of a problem

c

. when a problem has multiphasic branch points

d

. when a problem is unsolvable by heuristics

ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: p. 369 BLM: Higher order

142. Mayra wants to generate a set of anagrams for a contest in the campus paper. To generate the anagrams, she starts with the words that the contestants need to come up with to win the con-test, and then scrambles the letters. In this case, Mayra's method of solving the problem is consistent with which problem-solving heuristic?

a. means-end analysis

b

. searching for analogies

c

. trial and error

d

. working backward

ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: p. 369 BLM: Higher order

143. Which heuristic are you applying if you solve a current problem using the solution to a previous, similar problem?

a. formulating subgoals

b

. working backward from the goal

c

. searching for analogies

d

. the availability heuristic

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: p. 369 BLM: Remember

144. You've observed the similarities between a new problem to be solved and one you've successfully solved in the past. What is this called?

a. the alternative outcomes effect

b

. an algorithm

c

. shaping

d

. using analogies

ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: p. 369 BLM: Higher order

145. When Graham is printing copies from the computer in the library, the paper keeps jamming in the machine. He takes the paper out of the paper tray, fans it, and then flips it over, so the oth-er side of the paper feeds first. This is the way he solves similar problems on the photocopy machine at the office where he works. Which problem-solving heuristic is consistent with Graham's method of solving the problem?

a. working backward

b

. searching for analogies

c

. means-end analysis

d

. trial and error

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: p. 369 BLM: Higher order

146. Why do diagrams sometimes facilitate problem solving?

a. They aid in the search for analogies.

b

. They change the representation of the problem.

c

. They make it easier to execute algorithms.

d

. They relax constraints on problem solutions.

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: p. 370 BLM: Higher order

147. Scott has been trying to write some computer code, but it isn't working. He decided to go to bed and try again in the morning, and when he started again he immediately detected and fixed the problem. What does this example illustrate?

a. incubation effect

b

. field dependence

c

. searching for analogies

d

. mental set

ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: p. 372 BLM: Higher order

148. Clarice has a tendency to accept the physical environment as given and makes little if any attempt at analyzing or restructuring it. Which of the following describes Clarice?

a. extrinsically motivated

b

. heuristic

c

. field dependent

d

. a novice at problem solving

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: p. 372 BLM: Higher order

149. Tiffany has received the same error message on her computer five times in a row. She can't understand why she keeps getting the error message, because she is sure she is executing the steps in the correct order. Her friend Daisy suggests that Tiffany try a different computer ter-minal. When Tiffany does so, everything works just fine. Which of the following describes Tiffany, based on this incident?

a. cognitively rigid

b

. field dependent

c

. high in metacognition

dunable to use noncompensatory strategies

.

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: p. 372 BLM: Higher order

150. Levi enjoys solving logical reasoning problems. He seems to have a knack for looking at problems in new ways and reorganizing the components of problems in creative ways. Which of the following is likely about Levi?

a. He will introduce unnecessary constraints into problems that he is working on.

b

. He is field dependent.

c

. He uses algorithms more frequently than heuristics in solving problems.

d

. He relies more heavily on internal than external frames of reference.

151. During the Apollo 13 mission, the ground engineers had to devise a new way of cleaning the capsule air supply, using only the materials the astronauts had on board the space capsule. Which engineers would be most likely to be successful, based on the work of Witkin and his colleagues?

a. those who were high in metacognition

b

. those who used the availability heuristic

c

. those who were field independent

d

. those who were trained in engineering

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: p. 372 BLM: Higher order

152. Which of the following is a general conclusion from research into cognitive style and problem solving?

a. Field-dependent subjects are better at solving arrangement problems, while field-independent subjects are better at overcoming functional fixedness.

b

. Field-independent subjects do better than field-dependent subjects in solving ar-rangement problems and in overcoming functional fixedness.

c

. Field-dependent subjects do better than field-independent subjects in solving ar-rangement problems and in overcoming functional fixedness.

d

. Field-independent subjects are better at solving arrangement problems, while field-dependent subjects are better at overcoming functional fixedness.

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: p. 372 BLM: Higher order

153. What is the origin of holistic styles of thinking, according to Nisbett and his colleagues?

a. ancient Chinese philosophies

b

. contemporary educational practices that stress critical thinking skills

ccontemporary educational practices that stress collaboration

.

d

. ancient Greek philosophies

ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: p. 372 BLM: Remember

154. Sean was stranded in the desert after his plane crashed. Which cognitive style would give him the best chance for survival under these circumstances?

a. algorithmic

b

. risk aversion

c

. heuristic

d

. field independence

ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: p. 372 BLM: Higher order

155. The concept of field dependence-independence highlights the importance of which of the following in determining problem-solving skills?

a. nativistic factors

b

. expertise

c

. behavioural factors

d

. cultural factors

ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: p. 372 BLM: Higher order

156. Which of the following seems to be enhanced by the educational practices in modern Western societies?

a. field dependence

b

. field independence

c

. algorithmic problem solving

d

. risk-averse behaviours

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: p. 372 BLM: Remember

157. In cultures that depend on hunting and gathering for subsistence, which cognitive style is more adaptive?

a. algorithmic

b

. field dependent

c

. field independent

d

. risk averse

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: p. 372 BLM: Higher order

158. Tylo belongs to a nomadic hunter-gatherer tribe in the South American jungle. Which of the following is Tylo likely to exhibit based on what is known about cultural differences in cogni-tive style?

a. fast mapping

b

. belief perseverance

c

. field independence

d

. field dependence

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: p. 372 BLM: Higher order

159. Darius belongs to a religious sect whose livelihood is based on agriculture. There are strict rules regarding dress and behaviour, and children are expected to help in the fields as soon as they are old enough. Which of the following is Darius likely to exhibit based on what is known about cultural differences in cognitive style?

a. field independence

b

. belief perseverance

c

. field dependence

dfast mapping

.

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: p. 372 BLM: Higher order

160. What do people focus on if they are using an analytic cognitive style?

a. following step-by-step procedures, rather than using mental shortcuts

b

. objects and their properties, rather than overall context

c

. external frames of reference, and the environment is taken as a given

d

. context and relationships among the elements in a field

161. Michiko lives in Japan and Krystal, Michiko's pen pal, lives in Canada. Based on the research by Nisbett and his colleagues into cultural differences in cognitive styles, which styles should you predict that each person will tend to use?

a. Michiko will be heuristic and Krystal will be algorithmic.

b

. Michiko will be holistic and Krystal will be analytic.

c

. Michiko will be field independent and Krystal will be field dependent.

d

. Michiko will be heuristic and Krystal will be holistic.

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: p. 372-373 BLM: Higher order

162. Car A has good mileage, a low price, and low maintenance, or three pluses. Car B has only a low price and low maintenance, or two pluses. So, I'll choose Car A. What does this example illustrate?

a. elimination by aspects

b

. weighted additive strategy

c

. field-dependent decision strategy

d

. purely additive strategy

ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: p. 375 BLM: Higher order

163. Brett is trying to decide which graduate schools he will apply to. He is making up a list of all the positive and negative aspects he feels are associated with 100 different schools, and he plans to send applications to the 10 schools that score the highest when he adds up all the pos-itive points and subtracts all the negative points. What type of decision strategy is Brett using?

a. elimination by aspects

b

. expected value strategy

c

. holistic strategy

d

. purely additive strategy

ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: p. 375 BLM: Higher order

164. Marisa is trying to decide between two computers that are advertised at the same price, and have a lot of similar features. Computer A has a faster processor but less memory than com-puter B, though. Because Marisa thinks that the speed of the processor matters more than the amount of memory, she decides to buy computer A. How has Marissa made her decision in this case?

a. analytic decision strategy

belimination by aspects

.

c

. weighted decision strategy

d

. representativeness heuristic

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: p. 375 BLM: Higher order

165. Which decision-making strategy is being used if an alternative is eliminated whenever it fails to satisfy some minimum criterion on an attribute?

a. representativeness heuristic

b

. elimination by aspects

c

. purely additive strategy

d

. weighted additive strategy

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: p. 375 BLM: Remember

166. Christine wants to buy a new television. She will not purchase a television with a screen smaller than 25 inches. She will also not purchase a television that costs more than $500. What type of decision-making strategy is she using?

a. purely additive strategy

b

. field independent strategy

c

. weighted additive strategy

d

. elimination by aspects

ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: p. 375 BLM: Higher order

167. Kimba is trying to decide to which graduate schools she will apply. She has decided not to apply to any university located in a city with a population greater than 500,000 people, and she does not plan to apply to any university more than 500 miles from the city where her par-ents live. What strategy is Kimba using?

a. availability heuristic

b

. elimination by aspects

c

. weighted decision strategy

d

. purely additive decision strategy

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: p. 375 BLM: Higher order

168. You apply to a graduate school that decides on who is accepted by demanding that three successive criteria be met: high GPA, excellent letters of reference, and evidence of research experience. Failure to meet any one eliminates an applicant. What type of strategy is this?

a. representativeness heuristic

b

. elimination by aspects

c

. purely additive decision strategy

d. weighted decision strategy

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: p. 375 BLM: Higher order

169. When using elimination by aspects, which aspect should you evaluate first?

a. least time consuming

b

. least important

c

. most important

d

. most time consuming

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: p. 375 BLM: Higher order

170. Consider two job offers in the same city. One salary is $80 000, in a company where the average salary is $100 000. The other salary is $70 000 in a company where the average sala-ry is $50 000? How would each job be rated if people were rating each of these job offers in-dependently (not comparing them to each other)?

a. Both jobs would be rated equally, because people ignore relative differences in salary.

b

. The lower paying job would be rated higher, because the relative salary is higher.

c

. The higher paying job would be rated higher, because the absolute salary is high-er.

d

. Both jobs would be rated equally, because salary is a poor predictor of job quality

171. You flip a fair coin ten times. Each time it comes up heads you get 10 cents. Each time it comes up tails you lose 5 cents. What is your expected value for each flip of the coin?

a. -5 cents

b

. +5 cents

c

. -10 cents

d

. +10 cents

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: p. 377 BLM: Higher order

172. Jacob is thinking of buying a $1 lottery ticket. In Lottery A, his odds of winning are 1 out of 1000, and he may win $500. In Lottery B, his odds of winning are 1 out of 5000, but he may win $5000. What will Jacob choose to do based on expected value theory?

a. Buy a ticket from Lottery A because it has a higher expected value.

b

. Not buy either ticket because both lotteries have very low odds of winning.

c. Buy a ticket from Lottery B because it has a higher expected value.

d

. Buy either ticket because both lotteries have the same expected value.

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: p. 377 BLM: Higher order

173. Wilson is watching two different roulette-type games at a local charity bazaar. Each game costs $1 to play. In one game there are ten different numbers, and if the number he selects comes up, he will win $12. In the other game there are 100 different numbers, but if the num-ber he selects comes up, he will win $50. What should Wilson do based on expected value theory?

a. Play the first game because it has a higher expected value.

b

. Play either one of the games because they both have the same expected value.

c

. Play the second game because it has a higher expected value.

d

. Not play either game because they both have such low odds of winning.

ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: p. 377 BLM: Higher order

174. What is subjective utility?

a. an individual's willingness to take risks

b

. a personal estimate of what the probability of an outcome is

c

. the expected value of an outcome

d

. what an outcome is personally worth to an individual

ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: p. 377 BLM: Remember

175. What is subjective probability?

a. a personal estimate of what the likelihood of an outcome is

b

. what an outcome is personally worth to an individual

c

. the expected value of an outcome

d

. an individual's willingness to take risks

ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: p. 377 BLM: Remember

176. Assume that odds of a new computer requiring any type of service in the first two years are less than 1 in 10 000, and the average cost any computer service calls is only $120. However, Karen pays $300 for a two-year service contract on her new computer. She explains that her peace of mind is well worth the cost of the contract. What is Karen using to make her decision to purchase the service agreement, in this case?

a. noncompensatory factors

b

. subjective probability

c

. expected value

d

. subjective utility

ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: p. 377 BLM: Higher order

177. What is the term for basing the estimated probability of an event on the ease with which instances come to mind?

a. representativeness heuristic

b

. law of small numbers

c

. conjunction fallacy

d

. availability heuristic

ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: p. 377 BLM: Remember

178. You can't think of a single instance when Cathy helped you out, and so you decide that Cathy must be an ungenerous person. What are you using to make this judgment?

a. representativeness heuristic

b

. expected value

c

. availability heuristic

d

. subjective utility

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: p. 377 BLM: Higher order

179. What are people using when they overestimate the frequency of violent crimes because these events generate a great deal of media coverage?

a. holistic decision model

b

. representativeness heuristic

c

. elimination by aspects strategy

d

. availability heuristic

ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: p. 377 BLM: Higher order

180. Juliana used to enjoy eating chicken, but since she has seen all the headlines about people becoming ill from eating chicken, she has decided she will never eat chicken again. Which of the following influenced Juliana's decision to stop eating chicken?

a. overconfidence effect

b

. representativeness heuristic

c

. conjunction fallacy

d

. availability heuristic

181. Zackary's friend asks how well Zackary gets along with his younger brother. Zackary thinks about how irritating his younger brother was yesterday, and the big fight they had as a result, and tells his friend that he doesn't get along with his brother at all. Which of the following is Zackary's response consistent with, in this instance?

a. conjunction fallacy

b

. availability heuristic

c

. hindsight bias

d

. representativeness heuristic

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: p. 377 BLM: Higher order

182. What cognitive tendency is described by the representativeness heuristic?

a. ignoring common stereotypes when estimating probabilities

b

. estimating the probability of an event based on how similar it is to the typical prototype of that event

c

. ignoring subjective probabilities when making decisions

d

. estimating the probability of an event by judging the ease with which relevant instances come to mind

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: p. 378 BLM: Remember

183. After seeing your new neighbour walking very stiffly and primly by your house wearing horn-rimmed glasses on a chain, a cardigan sweater, and her hair in a bun, you decide she must be a librarian. What are you using to make this judgment?

a. subjective probability

b

. subjective utility

c

. availability heuristic

drepresentativeness heuristic

.

ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: p. 378 BLM: Higher order

184. Elisa is entering survey data from adult males in a research study. One respondent has listed his height as 6 feet 5 inches, but the occupation is hard to decipher. Elisa thinks it might be basketball player or bank president. She decides to enter basketball player as the occupation. What did Elisa do in this case?

a. demonstrated the conjunction fallacy in making her decision

b

. demonstrated overextension in making her decision

c

. probably relied on the representativeness heuristic to make her decision

d

. probably relied on the availability heuristic to make her decision

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: p. 378 BLM: Higher order

185. Byron has been watching his new neighbour for a week. She drives a sporty car, carries a cell phone, and wears nothing but blue business suits. Byron decides his new neighbour must be a lawyer. What did Byron use to form an opinion about his new neighbour's occupation?

a. hindsight bias

b

. base-rate fallacy

c

. representativeness heuristic

d

. availability heuristic

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: p. 378 BLM: Higher order

186. Claude and Marie are excited because they have just bought a restaurant from the previous owners. The two partners know that the last seven restaurants that have been operated at that location have gone bankrupt within a year of their openings, but Claude and Marie are certain their restaurant will be successful because they plan on working hard to be a success. What are the two new business partners doing in this case?

a. supporting the gambler's fallacy

b

. demonstrating the confirmation bias

c

. apparently ignoring base rates

d

. showing belief perseverance

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: p. 378 BLM: Higher order

187. Autumn has been figure skating since she was five years old. She has never placed higher than third in any of the competitions she has been in, but she is still convinced that she will be able to become a professional figure skater in a few years. Her coach and her parents have tried to

tell her that not many people make it as professional skaters, but Autumn is convinced that she can beat the odds. What is Autumn doing in this case?

a. showing the confirmation bias

b

. displaying evidence of mental set

c

. showing belief perseverance

d

. apparently ignoring base rates

ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: p. 378 BLM: Higher order

188. What cognitive tendency is described by the conjunction fallacy?

a. drawing general conclusions based on a few isolated cases

b

. ignoring information about base rates when estimating the probabilities of certain combinations of outcomes

c

. believing that the odds of two uncertain events happening together are greater than the odds of either event happening alone

d

. overestimating the odds of a chance event if that event hasn't occurred recently

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: p. 378-379 BLM: Remember

189. You and your friend just met a woman at the bookstore, and she recommended a very good book to you. You guess, based on her appearance and demeanor, that she is a teacher. Your friend suggests that she is a teacher and also a writer. What should you think about your friend's suggestion?

a. Your friend has used an availability heuristic to decide that the woman must be a writer as well as a teacher.

b

. It's a very good idea, because being a teacher increases the likelihood that she is also a writer.

c

. Your friend has used the conjunction fallacy, assuming that the odds of two events occurring together are more likely that the odds of either event happening alone.

d

. Your friend has just used the representativeness heuristic to arrive at a conclu-sion.

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: p. 378-379 BLM: Higher order

190. Which of the following research projects would be most likely to be conducted by someone in the field of behavioural economics?

a. a study of emotional influences on investment in the stock market

b

. a comparison of the personalities of people in different socioeconomic groups

c

. a comprehensive list of the cost of education in 40 different countries

d

. an efficiency study of a corporation

191. Why do we make so many errors in decision-making, according to the theory of bounded rationality?

a. Our brains have evolved to solve problems that are different from many of the problems we currently face in our modern environment.

b

. We are incapable of actually considering all the factors necessary to make an op-timal decision.

c

. We have poor mathematical abilities, and so we miscalculate risks and benefits.

d

. We are far too affected by our emotions to make difficult decisions.

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: p. 380 BLM: Higher order

192. You're deciding whether you should take a new medication. One review tells you that the medication has a 5 percent risk of a serious side effect. Another review tells you that 95percent of patients do not experience that side effect. What differs between these two re-views?

a. bounded rationality

b

. the algorithm

c. representativeness

d

. framing

ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: p. 380 BLM: Higher order

193. Humans often appear irrational when you look at results of decision-making research. What explanation for this tendency is given by evolutionary theorists?

a. Cognitive research formulates problems that are unrelated to the problems that the human mind has evolved to deal with.

b

. Human research employs heuristics and algorithms rather than deductive reason-ing.

c

. Most research compares humans to other animals, and other animals have more highly developed instinctive decision-making processes.

d

. Most decision-making research involves numerical problems, something that our ancestors did not face.

ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: p. 380-381 BLM: Remember

194. Why do we use "fast and frugal heuristics", according to Gigerenzer?

a. We typically make decisions under divided attention, so we don't focus on the actual problem.

b

. Most of us do not have the cognitive power to actually process all the necessary information to make a decision.

c

. We learn as children to use our best guess, rather than reason through the process.

d

. We often don't have the time required to calculate every possible outcome or factor.

ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: p. 381 BLM: Remember

195. What is the benefit of using "fast and frugal heuristics"?

a. We tend to have greater confidence in decisions made that way.

b

. We make more accurate decisions than when we use careful reasoning.

c

. There are few benefits to the use of those heuristics, as decision making tends to be very flawed when done rapidly.

d

. We can make decisions very quickly.

ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: p. 381 BLM: Remember

196. Which of your text's unifying themes is illustrated by interactionist theories of language development?

a. Our experience of the world is highly subjective.

b

. Psychology evolves in a sociohistorical context.

c

. Heredity and environment jointly influence behaviour.

d

. Psychology is empirical.

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: p. 382 BLM: Higher order

197. During the 1950s and 1960s, creative new ways of measuring mental processes paved the way for the cognitive revolution. Which of your text's unifying themes does the development of new research methods helps to illustrate?

a. Our experience of the world is highly subjective.

b

. Psychology is theoretically diverse.

c

. Behaviour is determined by multiple causes.

d

. Psychology is empirical.

ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: p. 382 BLM: Higher order

198. Which of your text's unifying themes is partly illustrated by the fact that variations in cognitive style sometimes reflect the ecological demands of one's environment?

a. Psychology evolves in a sociohistorical context.

b

. Our experience of the world is highly subjective.

c

. Psychology is theoretically diverse.

d

. Our behaviour is shaped by our cultural heritage.

ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: p. 382 BLM: Higher order

199. Which of your text's unifying themes is illustrated by the fact that choices which are objectively identical can seem very different when reframed in different terms?

a. Our experience of the world is highly subjective.

b

. Our behaviour is shaped by our cultural heritage.

c

. Psychology is theoretically diverse.

d

. Heredity and environment jointly influence behaviour.

ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: p. 382 BLM: Higher order

200. Miryam has been following the provincial lottery for over a year, and she has a record of the number of times every number has been selected. She is going to start purchasing tickets for each draw with the same six-number combination on each ticket. She is going to choose the six numbers that have occurred the least frequently in the last year because she is sure they will be picked eventually. What has influenced Miryam's choice of numbers in this case?

a. availability heuristic

b

. conjunction fallacy

c

. base rate fallacy

dgambler's fallacy

201. Malcolm has been watching a roulette-type game at a local charity bazaar. The game has only ten numbers on the wheel, and every number except 8 has come up as a winner during the last 15 minutes. Malcolm decides to bet $10 on number 8, because it has to come up eventually. What has influenced Malcolm's choice in this case?

a. gambler's fallacy

b

. availability heuristic

c

. base rate fallacy

d

. conjunction fallacy

ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: p. 383 BLM: Higher order

202. Mr. and Mrs. Jones have five daughters. Hoping for a son, they decide to have a sixth child, reasoning that a boy is long overdue. Is their reasoning correct, and why?

a. Yes. After having so many daughters, a boy is almost a sure thing.

b

. No. The probability of a son is unaffected by the sex of the previous children.

c

. No. It is more likely that Mr. and Mrs. Jones will continue to produce girls.

d

. Yes. The greater the number of girls a couple has had, the greater the likelihood that the next will be a boy.

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: p. 383 BLM: Higher order

203. You've been rolling a die for the last five minutes, and you haven't rolled a 6 even once. Which of the following are you using if you predict that the results of the next roll are inde-pendent of all other rolls?

a. availability heuristic

b

. laws of probability

c

. representativeness heuristic

d

. gambler's fallacy

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: p. 383 BLM: Higher order

204. What is the likelihood of misleading results in a small sample, compared to the likelihood of misleading results in a large sample?

a. less in a small sample

b

. likelihood is unaffected by sample size

c. greater in a small sample

d

. same in both types of sample

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: p. 383 BLM: Remember

205. Reed is an avid basketball fan who is excited by the fact that the local professional team has won the first five games of the season. Based on this early performance, Reed is looking for-ward to a record-breaking season. Why does this faulty logic illustrate an error in statistical reasoning?

a. Later performance is seldom related to early performance.

b

. Small samples are the most accurate representation of final outcomes.

c

. Small samples cannot be expected to provide reliable indications of long-run performance.

d

. Winning streaks usually last for only a short period of time.

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: p. 383 BLM: Higher order

206. As Dr. Trelawny marks the first three midterms for her class, she notes that the grades are very high. She then thinks that this class must be exceptionally bright. What is Dr. Trelawny using to make this illogical assumption?

a. gambler's fallacy

b

. overestimating the improbable

c

. confirmation bias

d

. belief in the law of small numbers

ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: p. 383 BLM: Higher order

207. Many people mistakenly believe their chances of dying in an airplane crash are greater than their chances of dying in an automobile crash. Which of the following is reflected in this be-lief?

a. belief in the law of small numbers

b

. conjunction fallacy

c

. availability heuristic

d

. confirmation bias

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: p. 384 BLM: Higher order

208. There have been a number of reports in the news about the Avian Flu, including reports of a number of deaths. Other forms of flu kill many more people every year, but many people state

that the Avian Flu is much more dangerous. Which of the following is likely responsible for this overestimation of the danger of Avian Flu?

a. representativeness heuristic

b

. availability heuristic

c

. belief in the law of small numbers

d

. confirmation bias

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: p. 384 BLM: Higher order

209. Maribel is on a jury, and she is already convinced that the defendant in the case is not guilty. She listens very attentively to everything the defence attorneys have to say, but she tends to pay less attention when the prosecution is presenting evidence. What seems to be influencing Maribel's behaviour in this instance?

a. overconfidence effect

b

. conjunction fallacy

c

. base-rate fallacy

d

. confirmation bias

ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: p. 384 BLM: Higher order

210. You believe that getting a degree in business will guarantee you a high-paying career. Every time you hear about someone with a prestigious career, and a business degree, you take this as evidence to support your belief. Which of the following will you NOT do if you are vulnera-ble to confirmation bias?

a. Stick to your belief unless you hear a lot of supporting evidence.

b

. Selectively ignore information that runs contrary to your belief about business degrees.

c

. Look for more evidence that people with business degrees make a lot of money.

d

. Look for evidence that some people with business degrees have low-paying ca-reers.

211. Which of the following is an implication of having a confirmation bias?

a. New information is interpreted as consistent with an existing belief.

b

. It allows people to make accurate decisions more quickly.

c

. It interferes with our ability to accurately code and store information.

d

. It tends to produce mental set and functional fixedness.

ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: p. 384 BLM: Higher order

212. Corey was serving on a jury in a criminal case, and the jury reached a unanimous "not guilty" verdict. Several months later, some additional evidence came to light that strongly suggested that the defendant was, in fact, guilty of the crime in question. Corey is still not convinced by the new evidence, and claims he wouldn't have voted guilty, even if the new information had been presented during the trial. What is Corey demonstrating in this example?

a. conjunction fallacy

b

. mental set

c

. belief perseverance

d

. availability heuristic

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: p. 385 BLM: Higher order

213. You applied for a job at a local store. You got an interview but were not offered a position. The next week, you see a very pretty new girl working behind the counter. You tell your friends that you didn't get the job because the manager hired the pretty girl rather than some-one who was better qualified for the job. A week later, one of your friends tells you that the girl who was hired had four years of retail experience, and glowing letters of reference. You still believe that her looks got her the job. What does your opinion demonstrate?

a. availability heuristic

b

. overestimation of the improbable

c

. belief perseverance

d

. mental set

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: p. 385 BLM: Higher order

214. What are you demonstrating if you overestimate the accuracy of your answer?

a. negative effects of framing

b

. gambler's fallacy

c

. overconfidence effect

d

. conjunction fallacy

ANS: C PTS: 1 REF: p. 385 BLM: Remember

215. Which of the following statements is most accurate?

a. In their predictions about personal matters, people tend to be more accurate than confident.

b

. Even professionals and experts tend to be overconfident about their own predic-tions.

cThe overconfidence effect is seen only when making predictions about events

. that have no personal significance.

d

. The overconfidence effect is seen only when making predictions about events that have personal significance.

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: p. 385 BLM: Remember

216. When are people much more likely to take risks, according to Kahneman and Tversky?

a. when they are seeking to avoid losses

b

. when the issue is framed in terms of probability of success

c

. when the probability of success is equal to the probability of failure

d

. when they are not asked to provide rationales for their choices

ANS: A PTS: 1 REF: p. 386 BLM: Remember

217. When people are seeking gains, what is their likelihood of making risky decisions, compared to when they are attempting to cut their losses?

a. equally likely in both situations

b

. less likely when seeking gains

c

. more likely when seeking gains

d

. less likely when seeking gains if female, but more likely if male

ANS: B PTS: 1 REF: p. 386 BLM: Remember

218. Fred needs major heart surgery, and he has consulted with two doctors about the operation. Dr. Marx tells Fred he has a 90 percent chance of surviving the surgery; Dr. Scalli tells Fred there is a 10percent chance that he won't survive the surgery. Which of the following is most likely, based on Kahneman and Tversky's research?

a. Fred won't care who does the surgery because both doctors have presented the same information.

b

. Fred will probably avoid making a decision until it is too late.

c

. Fred is most likely to let Dr. Scalli perform the operation.

d

. Fred is most likely to let Dr. Marx perform the operation.

ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: p. 386 BLM: Higher order

219. Researchers presented two groups of physicians with information regarding a surgical procedure. The first group of physicians were told that, on average, 15 out of 100 people die as a result of the surgery; the remaining group of physicians were told that on average 85 out of 100 people survive the surgery. Which of the following should you expect?

a. Both groups of physicians would recommend the surgical procedure to their pa-tients.

b

. Neither group of physicians would recommend the surgical procedure to their patients.

c

. The first group of physicians would be more likely to recommend the surgical procedure to their patients.

d. The second group of physicians would be more likely to recommend the surgical procedure to their patients.

ANS: D PTS: 1 REF: p. 386 BLM: Higher order

220. A sales representative from an investment company is trying to convince a young couple to invest in one of the company's mutual funds. Which of the following will most increase his likelihood of success, based on the framing effect?

a. He leaves a detailed prospectus containing a lot of statistical analyses.

b

. He stresses that the fund has lost money in only 3 of the past 15 years.

c

. He stresses that the fund has had solid returns in 12 of the past 15 years.

d

. He mentions the names of other people who have invested in the fund.

What does the term cognition refer to quizlet?

Why do we make so many errors in decision making according to the theory of bounded rationality quizlet?

What does the term cognition refer to?

Which of the following is negatively impacted by bilingualism quizlet?