What is government according to the textbook what are the defining features of government?

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Chapter 1: What are Governments and What do They Do?·According to the textbook, what are the defining features of “government”?

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·Make sure to know the basic definitions of these types of governing institutions: legislature,executive branch, bureaucratic agencies, judicial branch, and courts.

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·General AssemblyWhat is the name of the legislature of the federal government of the United

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States?CongressWhat are the names of the two chambers of the legislature of the government ofSenate and HORWhat are the names of the two chambers of the legislature

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·Make sure to know and understand these two distinctive features of the American form ofgovernment: federalism and separation of powers.

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·Make sure to know and understand the definition of these concepts provided by the textbook:oAuthority (as in A having authority over B)A has a right to issue commands to B and B isexpected to obey those commands, same thing for power.oLegitimate claim to authorityoPower (as in A having power over B)·How are the following three kinds of laws different from one another: ordinances, statutes,regulations?

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Chapter 1: What are Governments and What do They Do?

• According to the textbook, what are the defining features of “government”?

  • (1) Set of institutions that endures over time, (2) has authority over the people of a specific territory, (3) authoritatively makes and enforces laws

• Make sure to know the basic definitions of these types of governing institutions: legislature, executive branch, bureaucratic agencies, judicial branch, and courts. - Legislature: an institution of government that makes laws (legislates) - Executive branch: a set of institutions in government with authority to put laws into effect, including, but not limited to, through the use of physical force by police or military - Bureaucratic agencies: organizational units within executive branch of government responsible for implementing specific public policies and/or providing public services. - Judicial branch: an institution of government that makes authoritative judgements - Courts: (courts of law) tribunals with authority to resolve legal disputes between parties and that make authoritative judgements that guide and limit executive branch enforcement and implementation of laws.

• What is the name of the legislature of the government of the State of Georgia? What is the name of the legislature of the federal government of the United States? What are the names of the two chambers of the legislature of the government of the State of Georgia? What are the names of the two chambers of the legislature of the federal government of the United States? - The legislature of the State of Georgia is called the Georgia General Assembly - The legislature of the US federal government is called Congress - The two chambers of the legislature of the state and federal legislature are called the Senate & House of Representatives

• Make sure to know and understand these two distinctive features of the American form of government: federalism and separation of powers. - Federalism: Principle of government that means authority is partly divided and partly shared between the federal (central/national) government and state governments - Separation of powers: Principle of government that means legislative, executive, and judicial powers are exercised by three separate branches of government consisting of distinct institutions that are staffed by officials who serve in only one institution at a time

• Make sure to know and understand the definition of these concepts provided by the textbook: ➔ Authority (as in A having authority over B) ◆ A has authority over B - A has right to issue commands to B - A expects B to obey those commands - A has right to punish B for failing to obey those demands

➔ Legitimate claim to authority : a rightful/justified claim to have authority over the other

• How are the following three kinds of laws different from one another: ordinances, statutes, regulations?

• Ordinances (city): laws made by a city (municipal) legislature (such as the Atlanta City Council)

• Statutes (state or Congress): laws made by Congress or a state legislature (such as the Georgia General Assembly)

• Regulations: rules made by bureaucratic agencies that have “the force of law.” Along with statues and ordinances, regulations are examples of ordinary laws.

• Why, according to the textbook, is Max Weber’s definition of government (as that which has “a monopoly over the legitimate use of force over a territory”) misleading? - (1) The definition emphasizes executive function of government at the expense of legislative and judicial functions of government - (2) The idea of a monopoly on the legitimate use of force conflicts with the idea of federalism; in the US there is no government with a monopoly of legitimate use of physical force

• What does it mean to be “sovereign”? Whom (or what) is considered to be sovereign in the United States? ❖ To have sovereignty is to be the highest authority to rule over a given territory - A sovereign government claims that no person, group, or organization either within its territory or outside its territory has authority over it. ❖ In the US, the people are considered the highest authority to rule, therefore government authority is legitimate only if it derives from the consent of the people

• Make sure to know and understand the various ways governments exercise power over people. And make sure to understand how the following concepts relate to the government’s use of power over people: positive incentives, negative incentives, carrots, sticks, power of the sword, and the power of the purse. ~ A has the power over B to the extent that A can get B to do something that B would not otherwise do

1. Using physical force
2. Affecting hearts and minds:

lack motivation to voluntarily contribute to providing them. Individuals will have strong temptation to “free ride,” ,but when most people try to free ride, the public good does not get provided. ❏ Collective Action Problem: a situation where free riding threatens to prevent a group from providing a public good. ❏ Free Riding: Enjoying the benefits of a public good without bearing part of the burden of providing it.

Chapter 2: Introduction to the American Way of Government

• What is meant by the word “ideology”?

  • (1) Used to refer to beliefs about the proper role of government.
  • (2) legitimate purposes of government

• According to the textbook, what are two government purposes that most Americans consider to be legitimate?

  • Securing Rights : these include natural rights (life, liberty, to pursue happiness without interference, and other moral rights) and legal rights (part of written human-made laws)
  • Promoting the Happiness/Welfare of the People

• What is “limited government”? What does it have to do with “securing rights”?

  • Limited Government : to serve its legitimate purpose of protection of rights, but it must also be limited and controlled in its powers so that it does not pose an unacceptable risk to rights. ★ Securing rights in a limited government means that the govt. must be able to protect and respect them.

• What is the difference between a legal right and a natural right? Which natural rights are listed in the Declaration of Independence? Do Americans tend to agree or disagree that those rights listed in the Declaration are actual moral rights that government has a responsibility to secure?

  • Natural Rights : these include the rights to life (to not be killed), to liberty (the right to not be enslaved or restrained) and to pursue happiness without unjust interference. Locke also mentioned the right to property (to not have possessions stolen) a part of natural rights.

• Legal Rights : written in ordinary or constitutional law. They are different from natural rights because they are not moral rights that one would have even without the government. ★ Americans have agreed that the rights listed in the DI (life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness) are moral rights that one would withhold even without the presence of the government.

• What are socioeconomic rights? In which document are they listed: The Declaration of Independence or the Universal Declaration of Human Rights? Do Americans agree or disagree over whether socioeconomic rights are actual moral rights that government has a responsibility to secure?

• Socioeconomic Rights : services that include housing, health care, safe working conditions, and paid vacation time that the govt have a duty to guarantee. ★ These rights are listed in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (document that began asserting the existence of “equal and inalienable” rights of all members of the human family) ★ Many Americans believe that socioeconomic rights should not be secured by the government.

• According to the textbook, three government purposes the mainstream of American politics considers to be illegitimate are theocracy, racial supremacy, and state socialism (also known as communism or Marxist-Leninist socialism).

• Theocracy : A government where the primary purpose is to enforce a doctrine of a particular religion. (Saudi Arabian constitution)

• Racial Supremacy : where the government promotes the supremacy of one racial group over another. (Hitler’s regime)

• State Socialism : seeks to overthrow market capitalism and replace it with equal society free of class oppression. Govt. has full authority over all production and economic activity. (Communism or Marxist-Leninist Socialism) ● Which of those three purposes was accepted as legitimate by parts of the mainstream of American politics in the past?

• State socialism was widely accepted for a period of time and many people were comfortable describing themselves as “socialists”. ● According to the textbook, what is market capitalism and how does it differ from state socialism?

• Market Capitalism : an economic system based on market exchanges and the private ownership of the means of production. ★ It differs from state socialism because in a market capitalist system, the individuals have the right to their own means of production and business. The government seeks to control all of that in a state socialist system.

• In addition to federalism and the separation of powers, two distinctive features of the American form of government are constitutional government and democratic government. Make sure to know and understand how each of those concepts are defined by the textbook.

• Constitutional Government : a government that is effectively bound by fundamental law (laws that are supreme in this case, the American Constitution).

• Democratic Government : form of government that is by the people. All adult citizens are able to exercise control over the government through their legal rights and freedoms.

• What does it mean to say that in a constitutional government “ordinary laws can be unlawful”?

• If a law passed by Congress violates the Constitution, that law can be considered illegal or illegitimate.

1. You can start, work for, and/or donate money to an interest group that, in turn, seeks to influence government officials
2. You can serve on a jury
3. You can sue government in court if you believe it has violated one of your legal rights or denied you a benefit to which you are legally entitled.

★ The last general way you can exercise control over government is by working outside the normal democratic process in order to improve it 10. You can engage in many activities outside the normal democratic process in order to create changes to the normal democratic process itself. - You can start a movement that seeks to change the rules so that more groups can be represented; protesting, demonstrating, producing political art and music, boycotting, writing books, producing documentaries, and engaging in sit-ins or other acts of civil disobedience - Free elections- Elections in which (1) more than one candidate runs for office, (2) the candidates present real alternatives by promising to promote different public policies (or stand for different values or principles) if elected, (3) no adult citizen is unjustly denied the right to vote, (4) all who have the right to vote have reasonable opportunity to exercise that right, and (5) everyone’s vote is counted - Political parties- Coalition of individuals and groups—bound together by relatively similar interests, beliefs and values—seeks to influence government by getting members elected to office and by coordinating the actions of elected officials in government. - Constituents-Those whom elected officials represent and to whom they are held accountable via elections. - Petition- A written request, signed by many people, asking government to address an issue. - Interest groups- individuals or organizations that seeks to influence government to benefit members of the association or advance a cause they share a belief in. - Lobbying - Activities aimed at influencing government through direct contact with government officials. - Jury-A group of citizens chosen at random to make judgments in one or more legal cases. - Civil disobedience- Deliberate, open acts of lawbreaking intended to create awareness of unjust laws or government practices and thereby catalyze reforms of those laws or practices

o Make sure to understand the four freedoms necessary for democracy discussed in Section 2.2.

1. Adults are free to seek election to government office
2. Elections are “free elections” as defined above
3. People are free to think, believe, speak, debate, petition, contact government officials, join or form organized interest groups, join or form political parties,

assemble, pursue the truth, and publish ideas and factual claims (without censorship or intimidation) 4. Procedural protections are in place to prevent government from falsely accusing and/or punishing individuals for “crimes” when in fact the government’s real motive is to intimidate, detain, torture and/or kill those who attempt to exercise one of the above freedoms

• Make sure to know and understand the advantages democratic governments have over non-democratic (“authoritarian”) governments (as discussed in Section 2.2.).

• When the people exert control over government, the government is less likely to do bad things to the people

• Democracies are more likely to do good things for the people

• People who live in democracies report significantly higher levels of happiness than do those who live under authoritarian governments.

• According to our class discussion in class, how would you characterize people’s level of interest and knowledge about politics?

• Per class, most people do not devote their time to politics, thus inhibiting their knowledge of any topics pertaining to politics.

Chapter 3: Introduction to the American Way of Politics

• How does the textbook define “politics”? According to this account, is politics more or less likely to be found in a stable democratic government or in an unstable and/or authoritarian government? - a set of nonviolent, open, and free activities through which people, bound by the same stable democratic government, and who often have different opinions and interests, struggle to exert power over what government does -stable democratic government
• According to the textbook, what are “two (sometimes overlapping) sources of disagreement .... [that] are constant objects of political contention in the United States.” -ideology and interests
• Be able to identify someone as “liberal” (i., “to the left”) or “conservative” (i., “to the right”) based on how they stand on the following five dimensions of policy discussed in Section 2.1. of the textbook: (1) Regulating the Market Capitalist Economy; (2) Programs Promoting Economic Security, Welfare and Equality; (3) Promoting Social Equality of Historically Oppressed or Underprivileged Groups; (4) Upholding and Promoting Traditional Moral Values; (5) Law Enforcement and the Criminal Justice System. -(1) Regulating the Market Capitalist Economy:

individual and human rights. -Conservatives believe in personal responsibility, limited government, free markets, individual liberty, traditional American values and a strong national defense. - How were state socialism and fascism similar to and different from each other? -They both overlap in the method of bringing the objective/goal through government control, however their goals were different when socialism seeks an equal society, whereas fascism seeks class divisions, the total opposite. - What is the difference between “principled politics” and “the politics of interest”? -The difference between the two is that politics of interest is more geared towards what will be better for a specific individual or group whereas principled politics is more geared to what will benefit the general people. - Make sure to know and understand the four political scientific models of American politics discussed in Section 3. - Majoritarianism: Model of American politics that says the opinions and interests of the majority of Americans tend to prevail, through the mechanism of democratic elections, in the struggle for power over government

• Elite Theory: Model of American politics that says a tiny group of connected and wealthy Americans, totaling around 3000 in number, are the real rulers of America.

• Pluralism: Model of American politics that says government is influenced by the efforts of multiple minority organized groups with opposing interests and values. According to the classic theory of pluralism, all citizens potentially affected by policies can and will organize and thereby exert influence over policy. (all interested groups work to influence policy)

• Biased pluralism: model of American politics that sees the process as plural (i., represented by diverse values and interests) but biased toward the particular values and interests that concern and divide the relatively affluent and well educated. (some groups are more influential than others)

• According to our discussion in class would you describe the current parties as very similar or very distinct in terms of their ideologies? -As per in class, democratic party is currently more unified in terms of their similar ideologies, whereas the republican party are more scattered ranging from somewhat conservative to extremely conservative in their ideologies.

Chapter 4: Constitutional Origins, Principles, and Development

• (A) The Declaration of Independence expressed philosophical principles that are sometimes referred to as “America’s Creed.” o (B) What does that creed say about the legitimate ends (i., purpose) of government? o(C) According to that creed, what is the source of government’s legitimate authority? o (D)According to that creed, what do the people have the right to do when confronted with a government that is destructive of the ends which governments should serve? (A)(B)-We hold these truths to be self-evident, -[1] that all men are created equal, -[2] that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among

these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness -[3] That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed,

[4] That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to affect their Safety and Happiness.

(C)According to the creed, the source of government’s legitimate authority is the consent of the governed

-(D) whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form as to them shall seem most likely to affect their Safety and Happiness.

• You will not be expected to remember precise dates and/or years. However, you should know the order in which the following events/activities transpired: ratification of the Bill of Rights, ratification of the Articles of Confederation, first round of revolutionary-era state constitution making, Critical Period, Shays Rebellion, signing and ratification of the original U. Constitution, signing of the Declaration of Independence. - 1766- first round of revolutionary-era state constitution making, - July 4, 1776 – Declaration of Independence - 1781- Article of Confederation ratified - 1783- Critical period - 1786- Shay’s rebellion - 1788- Ratification of US Constitution - 1791- Ratification of Bill Of Rights
• Make sure to know and understand the first five design principles of the Articles of Confederation discussed in the textbook and how these contributed to the weakness of the central government. Make sure to know and understand the sixth design principle of the Articles of Confederation discussed in the textbook. -Six design principles of the Article of Confederation: (1) Confederal Structure (i., the “great and radical vice in the construction of the ... Confederation”) it only claims authority, and seeks to exercise power, over the state governments

(2) No Distinct Branches of Government (Simply a Unicameral Legislature) Central gov't consisted only of a unicameral legislature (only 1 chamber or house)

(3) Lack of Clear Supremacy of Treaties and Other National Laws. states often passed laws that contradicted the terms of treaties entered into by the U with foreign countries

(4) Tight Control of Congressional Delegates by State Legislatures. states only had to control a majority of their delegates (control 3/5 delegates)

• Popular Sovereignty: the people hold ultimate power in the government.
• Limited Government: No government is all powerful. Government must obey the law
• Separation of powers: No one component of the government holds too much power Powers are distributed among 3 different branches.
• Checks and Balances: Designed to prevent abuse of power in the government
• Federalism: power is shared between the central/national government and the states.
• Judicial review: the power of the courts to declare a law constitutional and unconstitutional

o Which institution (House, Senate, President, or Supreme Court) was designed to be held the most closely accountable to the people? Which was designed to be the least accountable to the people? The House of Representatives was the institution of the national government that was designed to be the most closely accountable to (i., most tightly controlled by) the people. o For how long are terms for members of the U. House of Representatives? - 2 years ▪ U. senators? 6 years ▪ U. presidents? 4 years

o What is the difference between a direct democracy and representative democracy? “Direct democracy,” with the people directly making and/or enforcing laws themselves. “Representative democracy,” where a relatively small number of public officials in government make and enforce laws on behalf of the majority of citizens who are outside of government o What kind of democracy did the Founders create? representative democracy o Why did the Founders choose a bicameral legislature instead of a unicameral one? -the purpose of a bicameral (instead of unicameral) legislature was to create an “upper house” (i., Senate) that was a quasi-aristocratic part of the legislature that would counterbalance the more democratic “lower house” (i., House of Representatives) o What purposes were served by the system of checks and balances?

• So that one branch would check another branch on power, so each branch is limited in only what they preside over
• What was “the Great Compromise”? Why was the Constitutional Convention in a stalemate before it? -Compromise (also known as the Connecticut Compromise) that sought to solve the disagreement between large and small states at the Constitutional Convention over how to apportion seats in Congress. -the Constitutional Convention reached a total stalemate over the issue of representation
• Make sure to know and understand the four ways discussed in the textbook that the Original Constitution protected slavery.

-(1) Three Fifths Clause: allowed states to count each of their slaves as three fifths of a person for purposes of calculating their share of seats apportioned in the House of Representatives. -(2) Electoral college: System established by the U. Constitution for selecting Presidents. The person who becomes President is the person who wins the most votes from these Electors. -(3) Slave Trade Clauses: Congress would not ban the slave trade prior to 1808, which was twenty years after the year (1788) they expected the Constitution to be ratified -(4) Fugitive Slave Clause: granted slave owners a constitutional right to recapture runaway slaves who had fled to other states, including states where slavery was illegal. And, as importantly, it took away the right of states to pass laws to protect and/or emancipate runaway slaves

o Why did anti-slavery delegates want slaves to NOT be counted at all for purposes of calculating each state’s number of representatives? -this would guarantee slave states a majority of seats in the House of Representatives and, thus, allow them to block any Northern proposals to interfere with state laws protecting slave- owners’ “property” in slaves. Why did slave-state delegates want each slave to be counted as at least three-fifths of a person (if not as a whole person)? -reward slave-states with more seats in Congress if they increased the number of slaves within their jurisdiction. o How did the Electoral College give slave states extra voice in the selection of the President? the electoral college system used the three-fifths clause o What did the Original Constitution establish about the Atlantic Slave Trade? congress would not ban the slave trade prior to 1808, which was twenty years after the year (1788) they expected the constitution to be ratified o What did the Fugitive Slave Clause do?

• granted slave owners a constitutional right to recapture runaway slaves who had fled to other states, including states where slavery was illegal. And, as importantly, it took away the right of states to pass laws to protect and/or emancipate runaway slaves.
• Which group—the Federalists or the Anti Federalists—supported ratification of the U. Constitution? Which opposed ratification? Federalists supported. Anti federalists opposed. o Why, according to Section 3. of Chapter 4, were the Federalists and Antifederalists “co-founders of the Constitution”?
• Because the antifederalists would not approve unless there was a bill of rights and the federalists agreed; essentially it was the idea to have a bill of rights by the antifederalists
• Make sure to know the basic subject areas covered by the seven articles of the Original Constitution. (Article I)

Ch. 5: Federalism

A. What makes a federal system, like that of the United States, different from a confederacy and unitary national government? ● Federal system is divided and shared between the federal and state government. It claims direct authority over individual persons. ● There are at least two factors that render it a federal system instead of a unitary national government; the national government may enact and enforce laws in only certain areas of public policy. ● A second important feature of the American form of government that disqualifies it from being a unitary national government has to do with how the legal powers and geographic boundaries of states can be altered*. Federal government may only alter borders of a state if only the state consents.

B. What is judicial review? Why has it been important for the development of federalism over time? ● judicial review: authority of courts to decide whether an act of government is constitutional or unconstitutional ● When the U. Supreme Court declares a government action or law unconstitutional, all lower courts and government officials in the country (both federal and state) are understood to have a duty to abide by that ruling

C. Make sure to understand how the Supremacy Clause and Tenth Amendment help to define American federalism. ❏ Supreme Clause: Authority of the United States, shall be the supreme, Law of the Land ❏ 10th amendment: The Tenth Amendment helps to define the concept of federalism, the relationship between Federal and state governments. The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states respectively, or to the people. a. The U. Constitution “delegates” powers to the federal government in two ways: through enumerated powers and implied powers. i. Where in the Constitution are most of Congress’ enumerated powers listed? ○ Article I, Section 8 ii. What is the Necessary and Proper Clause? Why is called the “Elastic Clause”?

○ Congress shall have power to make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United State ○ I think it’s called the Elastic Clause because the constitution is vague on what is considered to be necessary and proper so Congress can stretch this clause far as long as they have a legitimate reason for why it is necessary and proper. Basically there is room to extend this power like a rubber band.

b. What are “reserved powers”? ● Areas of public policy over which only state governments have authority.

D. What is meant by “the police power”? (HINT: It is not about police officers.) What does it have to do with the constitutional law of American federalism? Are there any constitutional limits on the police power of the state governments? ● Police power: the idea that a government has inherent authority to make laws and regulations in order to promote the health, safety, welfare, and morals of the people ● State governments have the police power whereas the federal government does not ● Yes, if it is inhibiting a person’s beliefs/ privacy and this person’s beliefs is not affecting anyone else in society.

E. What advantages of forming unions (like the European Union or the U. union) are pointed to by pro-unionists? What disadvantages do anti-unionists (e., secessionists) point to? ● Advantages: ○ Governments can better achieve goals when together in a political union ○ Resolve conflicts peacefully ○ Relate to each other through political and legal processes; less likely to wage war on each other ○ Forge fair and mutually beneficial economic arrangements, immigration policies, and environmental pollution controls ● Disadvantages: ○ Less/no regulation of their own economies, the management of their own resources, and the determination of their own standards

F. Make sure to understand the five kinds of arguments (discussed in the textbook) made in favor of greater national government power and the four kinds of arguments made in favor of less national government power. Greater National Government

1. Preserving the Union: when states are allowed to have a certain level of independent authority and power, they can threaten the stability of the union.

2. Policy Experimentation (laboratories of democracy): when the federal government takes exclusive responsibility for an area of public policy, we have only that one “experiment” from which to try and gain understanding of the best way forward. And, as all scientists know, we need many different experiments and observations before we can learn anything helpful about what works and what does not. Having all 50 states conduct their own public policy experiments allows us to learn what works best and what does not work, which is better than just one experiment

3. Fostering Democratic Citizenship: According to this argument, democracies require citizens with the skills, habits, and dispositions necessary for effectively and responsibly engaging in democratic self-government. Thus, a great advantage of leaving significant authority to the state and local level is that it increases the number of opportunities for citizens to participate in democratic government and thereby to develop the traits essential for democratic citizenship

G. Generally speaking, has the power and authority of the national government increased or decreased over time? ● increased ● Factors that led to its increase: 1. Changes in what the people want the federal government to do 2. Changes in the Federal govt’s constitutional authority a. Changes in how the Constitution is interpreted by the US Supreme Court 3. Changes in the Power of the Purse 4. Changes in the number and power of federal bureaucratic agencies

H. What impact did each of the following have on the development of federalism during the Progressive Era?: a. The Supreme Court’s doctrine that the regulation of economic production is a power reserved exclusively to the states. - Supreme Court has a traditional view of the federal government’s authority to regulate the economy and society, therefore it constantly rejected the argument that Congress has authority to regulate local economic production. This transferred more power to the states and less power to the national government on regulation of economic production.

b. 16th, 17th, 18th, and 19th Amendments ● 16th Amendment: 1913 amendment that gave Congress authority to tax income in nearly any manner it chooses ○ Gave national government more revenue, enabling them to spend more than all state and local governments combined, which gives them a greater spending power → greater control

over the power of the purse, which helped the federal government to get state governments to implement national programs that the federal government could not constitutionally implement on its own. ● 17th Amendment: amendment that stripped state governments of their control over who served in the US Senate. ○ This, in turn, meant that the interests of state governments as state government no longer had representation in Congress ● 18th Amendment: amendment that banned the manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors ○ States were disallowed from using their police power to regulate alcoholic beverages however they saw fit ○ Demonstrated power from central government that would override any state regulations or laws to be followed across the nation. ● 19th Amendment: amendment that disallowed the states from ever again choosing to prevent women from voting ○ Demonstrated power from central government that would override any state regulations or laws to be followed across the nation.

I. In 1937, in upholding New Deal programs, the Supreme Court offered a revolutionary new interpretation of the Constitution, which had the effect of granting the federal government extensive authority to regulate the economy and enact the modern welfare state. Make sure to know and understand .... a. what “the substantial effects doctrine” is, how it replaced the older way of interpreting the Commerce Clause, and why this matters for the federal government’s authority to regulate the economy; - Substantial Effects Doctrine: The Supreme Court’s approach to interpreting Congress’s authority under the commerce clause in 1937. According to this doctrine, if an economic activity has a substantial effect on interstate commerce, then Congress may regulate it under the authority of the Commerce Clause - This gave Congress more power to regulate the economy on the condition that if it was urgently needed due to a possible significant impact something may have on the economy - Example: Federal government can intervene to protect the rights of workers to form unions because labor relations can influence economic output, which can influence the buying and selling of goods across state lines

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