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Review of Educational Research Vol. 77, No. 1 (Mar., 2007) , pp. 81-112 (32 pages) Published By: American Educational Research Association https://www.jstor.org/stable/4624888
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Abstract Feedback is one of the most powerful influences on learning and achievement, but this impact can be either positive or negative. Its power is frequently mentioned in articles about learning and teaching, but surprisingly few recent studies have systematically investigated its meaning. This article provides a conceptual analysis of feedback and reviews the evidence related to its impact on learning and achievement. This evidence shows that although feedback is among the major influences, the type of feedback and the way it is given can be differentially effective. A model of feedback is then proposed that identifies the particular properties and circumstances that make it effective, and some typically thorny issues are discussed, including the timing of feedback and the effects of positive and negative feedback. Finally, this analysis is used to suggest ways in which feedback can be used to enhance its effectiveness in classrooms. Journal Information Review of Educational Research (RER) publishes critical, integrative reviews of research literature bearing on education. Such reviews should include conceptualizations, interpretations, and syntheses of literature and scholarly work in a field. RER encourages the submission of research relevant to education from any discipline, such as reviews of research in psychology, sociology, history, philosophy, political science, economics, computer science, statistics, anthropology, and biology, provided that the review bears on educational issues. Publisher Information The American Educational Research Association (AERA) is concerned with improving the educational process by encouraging scholarly inquiry related to education and by promoting the dissemination and practical application of research results. AERA is the most prominent international professional organization with the primary goal of advancing educational research and its practical application. Its 20,000 members are educators; administrators; directors of research, testing or evaluation in federal, state and local agencies; counselors; evaluators; graduate students; and behavioral scientists. The broad range of disciplines represented by the membership includes education, psychology, statistics, sociology, history, economics, philosophy, anthropology, and political science. Rights & Usage This item is part of a JSTOR Collection. This section presents some sample exam questions for you to review as part of your preparation for the exam. To demonstrate how each competency may be assessed, each sample question is accompanied by the competency that it measures. While studying, you may wish to read the competency before and after you consider each sample question. Please note that the competency statements do not appear on the actual exam. For each sample exam question, there is a correct answer and a rationale for each answer option. The sample questions are included to illustrate the formats and types of questions you will see on the exam; however, your performance on the sample questions should not be viewed as a predictor of your performance on the actual exam. The sample questions included are representative of all competencies, but not necessarily all descriptive statements. The sample questions can be used to establish rigor, alignment, and context expectations you can expect on the actual exam. However, the questions should not be considered all-inclusive of the content of the descriptive statements. The sample questions should not be used to gauge the time it will take you to complete the exam because the questions are not representative of the total number of questions on an actual exam or weighted by domain or competency to reflect an actual exam. Clustered SetsQuestions 17–20 refer to the following information. Review the question and the 1-minute video clip of a post-observation conference. Mr. Ramirez is a principal in a 9–12 high school. A few days ago, he observed the eleventh-grade English literature class of Ms. O'Toole, an experienced teacher. The class had just concluded their study of the novel Candide, and Ms. O'Toole had planned an independent practice involving small groups of students discussing open-ended questions and drawing conclusions about the novel. During the post-observation conference, Mr. Ramirez asks Ms. O'Toole to identify an aspect of the lesson that did not go as planned. Refer to the following video where Ms. O'Toole responds to the principal's question. Video of the Teacher's Reflections During a Post-Observation Conference Competency 004—The entry-level principal knows how to monitor and assess classroom instruction to promote teacher effectiveness and student achievement.17. Ms. O'Toole indicates that she is discouraged by the lack of understanding in the conclusions the students drew about the novel's main character. Which of the following is Mr. Ramirez' most appropriate initial response to Ms. O'Toole?
Competency 005—The entry-level principal knows how to provide feedback, coaching, and professional development to staff through evaluation and supervision, knows how to reflect on his/her own practice, and strives to grow professionally.18. Mr. Ramirez recommends action steps for Ms. O'Toole to follow to ensure that her independent practice meets her instructional goals. Place in the correct sequence the action steps Ms. O'Toole should take when planning and implementing independent practice. Next are 3 choices followed by a graphic of 3 empty boxes labelled Firts, blank, Third. The correct order of options is 3, 1, 2. Ms. O'Toole should first clarify her parameters for acceptable answers by scripting the ideal conclusions the students should draw. This forms the basis for evaluating student performance. She should then prepare a targeted writing task or similar activity to help students focus on the content and skills to apply in their small-group discussion. Lastly, she should be prepared to circulate among the groups as they work so she can informally evaluate the groups' work and lead students to correct conclusions with brief comments. Competency 005—The entry-level principal knows how to provide feedback, coaching, and professional development to staff through evaluation and supervision, knows how to reflect on his/her own practice, and strives to grow professionally.19. Ms. O'Toole seeks advice from Mr. Ramirez about how to plan the lesson for the next day, considering that many students drew inaccurate conclusions about the novel's main character. Which of the following is the best strategy for Mr. Ramirez to recommend?
Competency 005—The entry-level principal knows how to provide feedback, coaching, and professional development to staff through evaluation and supervision, knows how to reflect on his/her own practice, and strives to grow professionally.20. Mr. Ramirez concludes that Ms. O'Toole will benefit from coaching on how to address the problem of students reinforcing misconceptions or misunderstandings when participating in independent practice. Which of the following is the best recommendation he can give Ms. O'Toole?
Questions 21–24 refer to the following information. Ms. Washington, a high school principal, is hired for a low-performing school and will lead a turnaround initiative. As part of the initiative, Ms. Washington screened all existing faculty and staff at the end of the previous school year against district-developed criteria for effective teachers and did not rehire 25 percent of the team. Ms. Washington will work with an intervention team composed of campus leadership, teachers, and instructional specialists to ensure significant gains in student achievement within two years. Ms. Washington meets with the campus improvement committee members, who share that staff members are apprehensive about possible changes as a turnaround campus. In response, Ms. Washington prepares facilitation notes for the first faculty meeting and identifies four key points that she will present at the first faculty meeting. Ms. Washington also sets aside time to review the previous principal's records that document student progress throughout the last school year. Documents
Campus Profile
Previous Principal's Student Progress Monitoring Chart Percentage of Students Meeting Standard Competency 001—The entry-level principal knows how to establish and implement a shared vision and culture of high expectations for all stakeholders (students, staff, parents, and community).21. Given the characteristics of turnaround schools and the indicators of success, which of the following actions should the principal consider to best proactively address the resistant teachers mentioned in Key Point 1?
Competency 004—The entry-level principal knows how to monitor and assess classroom instruction to promote teacher effectiveness and student achievement.22. Which of the following is the primary outcome of systematically implementing and monitoring the instructional data described in Key Point 2 of the principal's facilitation notes?
Competency 001—The entry-level principal knows how to establish and implement a shared vision and culture of high expectations for all stakeholders (students, staff, parents, and community).23. When considering Key Point 3, the principal acknowledges that it will be difficult to sustain and inspire staff through the turnaround initiative. Which of the following actions most clearly demonstrates the principal's commitment to the change process?
Competency 004—The entry-level principal knows how to monitor and assess classroom instruction to promote teacher effectiveness and student achievement.24. Ms. Washington recognizes the need for an upgraded approach to assessing and documenting student progress. Which TWO of the following principal actions improve on the previous principal's approach to measuring student progress?
Questions 25–29 refer to the following information. Ms. Contreras, the principal of Oak Tree Middle School, which is located in an urban area, reviews the campus profile and results from the latest state-mandated assessment. Ms. Contreras observes that the achievement gap has widened between Hispanic and White students and resolves to work toward closing this gap. Ms. Contreras also reviews student and teacher demographics over the last ten years. Ms. Contreras decides to give an open-ended questionnaire to collect data on teachers' perceptions of their responsiveness to shifting demographics. She discusses some of the most notable open-ended teacher responses during her weekly meeting with the lead teachers from each department. Ms. Contreras and the department leads, as part of their effort to close achievement gaps, form a plan for helping teachers develop cross-cultural competence so that they are better able to learn and build on the varying cultural and community norms of students and their families. During weekly team meetings, she trains the department leads on how to promote a culturally responsive learning environment. As part of that training, she provides department leads with guidelines to take back to their teams. Team Meeting Discussion Guidelines
Documents
Campus Profile
Oak Tree Student Demographics Teacher Questionnaire Competency 011—The entry-level principal knows how to provide ethical leadership by advocating for children and ensuring student access to effective educators, programs, and services.25. After receiving questions from the department leads about the new focus, Ms. Contreras should articulate that the primary goal of the initiative is to improve equity by
Competency 011—The entry-level principal knows how to provide ethical leadership by advocating for children and ensuring student access to effective educators, programs, and services.26. As Ms. Contreras uses the teacher questionnaire responses to guide an initial discussion with the department leads, she should primarily keep in mind that
Competency 004—The entry-level principal knows how to monitor and assess classroom instruction to promote teacher effectiveness and student achievement.27. As part of the department meetings, Ms. Contreras and the department leads review the questionnaire and decide to make the first question a key focus. As teams reflect and create collaborative goals for improvement, the primary focus should be on
Competency 006—The entry-level principal knows how to promote high-quality teaching by using selection, placement, and retention practices to promote teacher excellence and growth.28. The department lead develops the following plan to begin working with the English teachers to address the achievement gap.
Which of the following pieces of coaching advice should the principal provide to the department leader to help facilitate the change process?
Competency 009—The entry-level principal knows how to collaboratively determine goals and implement strategies aligned with the school vision that support teacher effectiveness and positive student outcomes.29. After Ms. Contreras works for a year to improve equity at the school, which TWO of the following pieces of data would quantify that important improvements have been made at the campus?
Questions 30–33 refer to the following information. Mr. Flores, an elementary principal, creates a schedule of activities at the beginning of the year and uses it weekly to ensure his time is used effectively to achieve school goals for student achievement. As part of his vision for a successful school, he develops a checklist that he uses as the foundation for collecting evidence during his scheduled classroom walk-throughs and provides the checklist to teachers after visiting classrooms. On Monday, Wednesday, and Friday mornings, Mr. Flores meets with the administrative team to check in, discuss pertinent school issues, and clarify duties. He uses an agenda to guide these meetings and document the topics that were addressed. In addition to conducting frequent meetings with the administrative team, Mr. Flores schedules time each week to lead collaborative grade-level teams. During these meetings, the grade-level chair records minutes and provides copies to all team members. Documents
Mr. Flores' Weekly Schedule Classroom Walk-Through Checklist
Notes: Competency 008—The entry-level principal knows how to focus on improving student outcomes through organizational collaboration, resiliency, and change management.30. After analyzing his schedule, Mr. Flores realizes that he has multiple areas for improvement. Which TWO of the following changes should Mr. Flores make to ensure effectiveness as an instructional leader?
Competency 004—The entry-level principal knows how to monitor and assess classroom instruction to promote teacher effectiveness and student achievement.31. Mr. Flores currently uses his checklist as the primary tool for documenting a teacher's performance during a walk-through. Which TWO of the following identify the significant drawbacks of relying on the checklist?
Competency 006—The entry-level principal knows how to promote high-quality teaching by using selection, placement, and retention practices to promote teacher excellence and growth.32. In order to more effectively utilize Ms. Markey, Mr. Farrad, and Ms. Thomas, the principal should first consider
Competency 006—The entry-level principal knows how to promote high-quality teaching by using selection, placement, and retention practices to promote teacher excellence and growth.33. After evaluating the action items from the administrative team meeting, Mr. Flores should prioritize
Questions 34–38 refer to the following information. Ms. Okeke is hired as principal of Maron Elementary, a pre-K–5 school in an urban district. Maron Elementary currently has three classrooms of four-year-old prekindergarten students, all of whom are taught by monolingual teachers with English as a Second Language certifications. Between 90% and 95% of the twelve English Learners (ELs) in prekindergarten classes speak Spanish as their first language. Ms. Okeke establishes the following goals for the school's prekindergarten program:
After the first semester, Ms. Okeke examines data related to kindergarten readiness in order to target areas of need. She then reviews the prekindergarten guidelines and expected outcomes and uses them as a reference to conduct classroom observations of each prekindergarten class. Documents
Skill-Specific Kindergarten Readiness Data for Current School Year Anecdotal Records/Notes by a Prekindergarten Teacher, Mr. Auckland (table 1) Walk-through Form: Classroom Environment and Language and Communication Competency 004—The entry-level principal knows how to monitor and assess classroom instruction to promote teacher effectiveness and student achievement.34. Concerned by trends shown in the kindergarten readiness data and the anecdotal records, Ms. Okeke resolves to work with teachers to identify how to better support students within Domain III: Language and Communication. Which THREE of the following strategies support the development and progress of student language and communication?
Competency 003—The entry-level principal knows how to collaboratively develop and implement high-quality instruction.35. Ms. Okeke wants to ensure that there is a significant increase in the percentage of students achieving kindergarten readiness within Domain II: Emergent Literacy — Writing by the end of the current year. To most effectively work toward this goal, she wants to ensure that the prekindergarten team recognizes that students progress through developmental stages as they learn to write. Which of the following should the teachers identify as a critical prerequisite to the tested skills?
Competency 004—The entry-level principal knows how to monitor and assess classroom instruction to promote teacher effectiveness and student achievement.36. Based on the Walk-through Form and Anecdotal Records, Ms. Okeke should suggest which THREE of the following improvements to Mr. Auckland's instructional approach?
Competency 004—The entry-level principal knows how to monitor and assess classroom instruction to promote teacher effectiveness and student achievement.37. After reviewing the anecdotal records, Ms. Okeke and Mr. Auckland discuss how to better support Ignacio as an English learner. Which TWO of the following strategies should Mr. Auckland implement to address the concerns noted about Ignacio?
Competency 006—The entry-level principal knows how to promote high-quality teaching by using selection, placement, and retention practices to promote teacher excellence and growth.38. During their discussion, Mr. Auckland shares that he does not feel confident in creating math centers to support student learning. He is concerned about the middle-of-the-year mathematics data and wants to develop centers that help students more effectively become kindergarten ready. Ms. Okeke schedules time to work with Mr. Auckland on creating a center that addresses the area of greatest need. Which of the following centers is most developmentally appropriate?
Questions 39–43 refer to the following information. Ms. Dawson is the principal of Junction Magnet Middle School (grades 6–8) in a suburban district. Junction Magnet MS specializes in providing a curriculum focused on science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) for the 450 students at the campus. While Junction Magnet MS accepts students by lottery from three other middle schools in the district, interest in the magnet program has not grown at the expected rate and a large portion of the school building is not being used. So, the district has decided to move Junction Magnet MS to the Riverside MS campus at the start of the next school year. Mr. Kapoor is the principal of Riverside Middle School (grades 6–8), which currently serves 625 students. Riverside MS has also experienced under-enrollment for several years, and the school building being used is well under capacity. In preparation for the merger, district leadership developed a transition plan to close Junction Magnet MS and move its students and magnet program to Riverside MS. The superintendent facilitated several meetings with Mr. Kapoor, Ms. Dawson, and other district leadership to determine the implications and factors to be considered for the merger. The team proposed the merger to the school board and gathered public input. Ms. Dawson notified the district that she plans to retire at the end of the school year but will work with Mr. Kapoor during the spring to ensure a smooth transition of Junction Magnet MS students to Riverside MS. In February, Ms. Dawson and Mr. Kapoor completed a meeting with the superintendent to discuss staff allocations and are now working to address the March events in the transition plan. Documents
Initial Transition Plan from the Superintendent—Merger of Junction Magnet MS and Riverside MS
Matrix for Selection for the Magnet Program Competency 001—The entry-level principal knows how to establish and implement a shared vision and culture of high expectations for all stakeholders (students, staff, parents, and community).39. After reviewing the information for each school, which THREE of the following actions should Mr. Kapoor plan to implement to support a successful merger of Junction Magnet MS with Riverside MS?
Competency 002—The entry-level principal knows how to work with stakeholders as key partners to support student learning.40. Mr. Kapoor and the leadership team plan several activities to respond to the concerns of the parent focus groups. As the leadership team reflects on their plans, Mr. Kapoor considers which of the planned activities go beyond only responding to parent feedback to creating an opportunity for parents to be an integral part of the school culture and which activities do not. The activities in rows 1 and 4 only respond to parent feedback but do not create structures where parents can be a part of meaningful collaborative activities that are important to the school culture because of the inherent nature of one-way communication. The activities in rows 2 and 3 go beyond just responding to parent feedback and create a structure for making parents an integral part of the school culture. The actions provide more effective and meaningful two-way communication, including an opportunity for parents to experience the school from the students' perspective and provide input on issues that are being discussed by teachers and students. They also provide a structure for parents to become more involved in programs and events, and to voice their concerns. Competency 006—The entry-level principal knows how to promote high-quality teaching by using selection, placement, and retention practices to promote teacher excellence and growth.41. Which of the following best supports Mr. Kapoor's request for choosing the teaching staff based on his staff projections for the merger?
Competency 002—The entry-level principal knows how to work with stakeholders as key partners to support student learning.42. Which THREE of the following actions should Mr. Kapoor take before sending out the letter regarding the changes to student selection for the STEM program?
Competency 001—The entry-level principal knows how to establish and implement a shared vision and culture of high expectations for all stakeholders (students, staff, parents, and community).43. Once staff have been selected and Mr. Kapoor is ready to determine the remaining portion of the transition plan, which of the following is the most immediate action Mr. Kapoor should take?
Questions 44–46 refer to the following information. Ms. Garmon is principal of Alames School, a single-campus prekindergarten through twelfth-grade school. Alames is the only school in the rural district of Alames ISD and serves 250 students, with an average of 17 students in each grade level. Alames has been affected by many factors that make it difficult to recruit effective teachers, among them competition with large urban and suburban school districts and lack of employment opportunities for family members of prospective candidates. In response, Ms. Garmon spearheads a Grow-Your-Own (GYO) program with the following goals.
The program was offered to juniors and seniors the first year, but Ms. Garmon plans to eventually expand it to create a track for aspiring teachers as early as eighth grade. This year, four juniors and four seniors applied and were selected to participate. Two days a week, students take education classes with Ms. Idelbird, a high-performing, highly motivating teacher. Three days a week, they gain field experiences by participating in instructional tasks in other classrooms under the guidance of a strong mentor teacher. Students spend one semester focused on elementary education and the following semester on secondary education. At the end of the year, Ms. Garmon collects input from participants to evaluate the program in its current form and plan for necessary adjustments. Documents
Staff Information—Instructional Staff Teaching Core Subjects Demographic Information for Current Year Participant Feedback—Year 1 Competency 007—The entry-level principal knows how to develop relationships with internal and external stakeholders, including selecting appropriate communication strategies for particular audiences.44. As Ms. Garmon refines the direction of the GYO program, which THREE of the following additional goals should she prioritize?
Competency 008—The entry-level principal knows how to focus on improving student outcomes through organizational collaboration, resiliency, and change management.45. Which of the following recruitment practices is likely to have the greatest impact on the GYO program?
Competency 009—The entry-level principal knows how to collaboratively determine goals and implement strategies aligned with the school vision that support teacher effectiveness and positive student outcomes.46. To ensure that all participants benefit from their classroom placements, Ms. Garmon should primarily consider
Questions 47–51 refer to the following information. Ms. Fripp is the new principal of Crimson School, a K–5 elementary school in a suburban school district with thirty-eight staff members who support the needs of 760 students. When Ms. Fripp joined the campus in the middle of the school year, she learned that Crimson has 76 students (10%) receiving special education services, which is similar to the district average. Ms. Fripp forms a small team consisting of herself, the school diagnostician, a district-level special education area coordinator, and the campus special education coordinator to review each student's Individualized Education Program (IEP). Ms. Fripp also participates in Admission, Review and Dismissal (ARD) committee meetings to further familiarize herself with student needs and progress. The team finds that a high percentage of students are served only through a pull-out resource model. The remaining students qualifying for special education are served in inclusion classrooms, in which a special education teacher goes in to monitor the students for part of the instructional time. Crimson does not have any self-contained special education classroom support. The team concludes that broadening the range of special education services provided to students would better support their needs. The team begins to develop a plan for expanding services for students qualifying for special education beginning the next school year. They conduct a needs assessment to inform the development of a campus professional development plan to support this transition. They decide to modify the school improvement plan to include action steps for improving the status of inclusive practices. Documents
Students Receiving Special Education Services: Team Analysis of Student Placement Students Receiving Special Education Services: Team Analysis of Student Placement Campus Professional Development Plan Competency 009—The entry-level principal knows how to collaboratively determine goals and implement strategies aligned with the school vision that support teacher effectiveness and positive student outcomes.47. Ms. Fripp can determine that the highest priority action is helping general education teachers
Competency 005—The entry-level principal knows how to provide feedback, coaching, and professional development to staff through evaluation and supervision, knows how to reflect on his/her own practice, and strives to grow professionally.48. Ms. Fripp and the team want to monitor the implementation of learning from the campus professional development plan. Which of the following classroom practices best demonstrates evidence of progress toward the expected outcomes listed in the professional development plan?
Competency 008—The entry-level principal knows how to focus on improving student outcomes through organizational collaboration, resiliency, and change management.49. Mr. Randolph, a third-grade teacher, has been partnered with Ms. Kirk, a special education teacher, to provide services to five students in Mr. Randolph's classroom. Mr. Randolph communicates to Ms. Kirk that he will provide her with weekly lesson plans so that she will be aware of what the students will be learning when she comes in to work with them. Ms. Kirk insists that they should collaborate and plan lessons together, but Mr. Randolph resists and indicates that he prefers to simply provide her with the plans. The principal, Ms. Fripp, meets with Mr. Randolph and learns that he questions the effectiveness of co-teaching to support the learning of all students. Which of the following strategies would be most effective in building Mr. Randolph's investment in co-teaching?
Competency 005—The entry-level principal knows how to provide feedback, coaching, and professional development to staff through evaluation and supervision, knows how to reflect on his/her own practice, and strives to grow professionally.50. After the first month of implementation, Ms. Fripp reviews several pieces of data that can help her evaluate the effectiveness of the professional development plan.
Which of the following should Ms. Fripp add to her list to best ensure a comprehensive evaluation process?
Competency 005—The entry-level principal knows how to provide feedback, coaching, and professional development to staff through evaluation and supervision, knows how to reflect on his/her own practice, and strives to grow professionally.51. During professional development, Ms. Fripp has teachers work in groups to discuss the characteristics and benefits of two co-teaching models in depth. To organize the benefits and purposes of each model, teachers create the table below. Determine whether each model is associated with the benefit/purpose, and for each row, select all that apply. Row 1: Station teaching and alternative teaching are correct because both models allow for efficient use of time by dividing students up. Row 2: Station teaching is correct because three instructional activities are offered in this model. Row 3: Alternative teaching is correct because the modified lesson supports at-risk students. Row 4: Station teaching and alternative teaching are correct because both models allow for dividing up the class to decrease student-to-teacher ratio. Row 5: Alternative teaching is correct because while a modified lesson is delivered to a small group, the rest of the class receives accelerated instruction. Which one of the following instructional strategies is most likely to help students with social or behavioral problems with low motivation in writing?Which one of the following instructional strategies is most likely to help students with social or behavioral problems with low motivation in writing? Encourage them to write about topics of personal interest.
Which one of the following is consistent with the textbook's recommendations regarding establishing rules and procedures for the classroom?Which one of the following is consistent with the textbook's recommendations regarding establishing rules and procedures for the classroom? Begin with a few basic rules and procedures; as the year goes on, involve students in decision making about additional issues that arise.
Which is the most important problem with using explanations as the primary way of developing student understanding?Of the following, which is the most important problem with using explanations as the primary way of developing student understanding? NOT: Teachers rarely use examples when they provide explanations, so students are unable to construct understanding.
Which one of the following does the textbook suggest as a strategy that teachers can use to demonstrate that they care for and respect their students?Which one of the following does the textbook suggest as a strategy teachers can use to demonstrate that their care for and respect their students? Greet each student with a smile as he or she enters the classroom at the beginning of the day or class.
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