The Monroe Doctrine was articulated in President James Monroe's seventh annual message to Congress on December 2, 1823. The European powers, according to Monroe, were obligated to respect the Western Hemisphere as the United States' sphere of interest. Show
President James Monroe’s 1823 annual message to Congress contained the Monroe Doctrine, which warned European powers not to interfere in the affairs of the Western Hemisphere. Understandably, the United States has always taken a particular interest in its closest neighbors – the nations of the Western Hemisphere. Equally understandably, expressions of this concern have not always been favorably regarded by other American nations. The Monroe Doctrine is the best known U.S. policy toward the Western Hemisphere. Buried in a routine annual message delivered to Congress by President James Monroe in December 1823, the doctrine warns European nations that the United States would not tolerate further colonization or puppet monarchs. The doctrine was conceived to meet major concerns of the moment, but it soon became a watchword of U.S. policy in the Western Hemisphere. The Monroe Doctrine was invoked in 1865 when the U.S. government exerted diplomatic and military pressure in support of the Mexican President Benito Juárez. This support enabled Juárez to lead a successful revolt against the Emperor Maximilian, who had been placed on the throne by the French government. Almost 40 years later, in 1904, European creditors of a number of Latin American countries threatened armed intervention to collect debts. President Theodore Roosevelt promptly proclaimed the right of the United States to exercise an "international police power" to curb such "chronic wrongdoing," in his so-called Roosevelt Corollary (or extension) to the Monroe Doctrine. While the Monroe Doctrine’s message was designed to keep European powers out of the Western Hemisphere, Roosevelt would strengthen its meaning to justify sending the United States into other countries of the Western Hemisphere. As a result, U.S. Marines were sent into Santo Domingo in 1904, Nicaragua in 1911, and Haiti in 1915, ostensibly to keep the Europeans out. Other Latin American nations viewed these interventions with misgiving, and relations between the “great Colossus of the North” and its southern neighbors remained strained for many years. In 1962, the Monroe Doctrine was invoked symbolically when the Soviet Union began to build missile-launching sites in Cuba. With the support of the Organization of American States, President John F. Kennedy threw a naval and air quarantine around the island. After several tense days, the Soviet Union agreed to withdraw the missiles and dismantle the sites. Subsequently, the United States dismantled several of its obsolete air and missile bases in Turkey. Write … and More Even though they share characteristics, citations and attributions play different roles and appear in different places. This chapter defines citation and attribution, explains how and when they should be used in an open textbook, and discusses their purposes, similarities, and differences. Outside ideas and information provide evidence that build an argument or lay the foundation for a textbook’s topic. A strong textbook will appropriately reference these sources, showing the student reader where information and ideas that do not originate with the open textbook author come from. This should be done for both restricted and open works through citations and attribution statements. Use this as an opportunity to show students by example how a scholar respects and shares information from other sources. CitationA citation allows authors to provide the source of any quotations, ideas, and information that they include in their own work based on the copyrighted works of other authors. The Oxford Living Dictionary defines it as a “…quotation from or reference to a book, paper, or author, especially in a scholarly work.”[1] To exclude citation of a resource referenced in your own work places you at risk of plagiarizing. Plagiarizing is the act of passing another individual’s ideas or work as your own. (Also see Concerns About Plagiarism.) Citation is a common and long-time practice among scholars used to indicate where a resource is from and who the author is. Unlike an attribution, citation is typically used for copyrighted works with restricted rights or “all rights reserved.” In other words, it is used in works for which broad permissions have not been granted. As a scholar and potential author of an open textbook, we assume that you are familiar with the rules around citation. However, the article Warning: When You Must Cite from the Yale Center for Teaching and Learning provides some guidance about how, what, and the amount of a work that can be cited. (See Textbook Citation.) AttributionAttribution is the cornerstone condition when using a resource or text released with an open-copyright licence. This legal requirement states that users must attribute — give credit — to the creator of the work. (See Copyright and Open Licences.) In a CC BY licence, the “CC” stands for “Creative Commons” and the “BY” stands for “Attribution,” or who the work is “by.” An attribution statement is used to provide credit to the original creator; its purpose is similar to a citation. Best practice says that the statement should include the title of the work, name of the creator, and licence type (with links to each). When using text from another open educational resource, be clear in your attribution statement what section of your textbook contains this information. A useful tool to help create attribution statements is the OPEN Attribution Builder by Open Washington. (See also Resources: Captions and Attributions.) DifferencesCitation and attribution serve different purposes.
The following table summarizes the differences between citations and attributions. Citation vs. Attribution
SimilaritiesThere are also similarities between a citation and attribution.
Special casesCiting and attributing a closed online resourceResources kept in a closed system, such as password-protected platform, can still be cited and attributed in an OER. Below are templates and examples showing how based on APA guidelines. (For other examples, see style guides to your preferred citation style.) Citation – APAWhen a resource cannot be accessed publicly, APA citation style states it should be treated as a personal communication. Additionally, only a parenthetical in-text citation is required, without inclusion in the reference list. See below for a template and example that can be used for the in-text citation.
Example of a citation (APA) for a closed online resource
If you wish to clarify that the personal communication is in fact a closed online system, here is a suggestion for how the in-text citation might read:
If you plan to publish a resource currently stored in a restricted system, then it can be cited as an unpublished manuscript using this template.
Example of a citation (APA) for a closed online unpublished resource
Citation – MLAIf your preference is the MLA citation style then treating a resource within a closed online system as an unpublished document makes sense. Below are the template and an example of how this can be done.
Example of a citation (MLA) for a closed online resource
AttributionThe legal code for Creative Commons licences states that “When a URI or hyperlink to the Licensed Material to the extent reasonably practicable (emphasis added).” In other words, providing a link to the OER to be attributed is not legally required. You must just do your best to provide one if available. Therefore, if you wish to include some or all of a private or non-accessible online resource (that is openly-licensed) in another OER, here are suggested templates for the attribution statement for those closed system OER. Example of an attribution statement for a closed online resourceThis chapter is an adaptation of Natural Disasters and Human Impacts (in Anywhere College SharePoint, internal access only) by R. Adam Dastrup and Maura Hahnenberger, and is used under a CC BY-SA 4.0 licence. TablesWhen BCcampus Open Education began publishing open textbooks, we discovered that there were few openly licenced tables that our authors could use. So, with the help of our copy editors, we developed a way to present information in a table format without violating copyright. We learned during our research that a table is comprised of two parts:
Our solution was to instruct authors to create an original table, and then cite the data added to that table. As you can see in the below example from Introduction to Tourism and Hospitality in B.C., we provided the source for the data in the last row in the table. For clarity, we labelled this in-text citation as “Data source.”[2] Alternatively, you could add the source information to a footnote. The original table, created by the author or a designer working with the author, is an original creation. Because of this, no attribution statement is required. The table design is copyrighted by the author (or designer). However, as the data comes from an external source, it requires a citation. This same process can be applied to charts and graphs. Citation-Attribution FusionThe libraries at Thompson Rivers University in Kamloops have come up with a clever solution to the citation versus attribution dilemma. In the Crediting Images found Online section of their APA Citation Style web page, they suggest modifying the APA citation style so it incorporates open licence or public domain information for the image’s caption and reference. Here is an example. The image and its caption would appear like this: The corresponding reference would be laid out like this: Vernon, A. (Photographer). (2007). Yellow-bellied marmot pups – Kamloops, BC [digital image]. Retrieved from Wikimedia Commons website: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Yellow-bellied_Marmot_pups_-_Kamloops,_BC..jpg For more information, see Textbook Citation in this guide Page added: Feb 20/18 | Last update: May 11/22 Attributions
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