What is the primary reason why peoples reaction times slow down as they get older?

The next time some twenty-something complains that they feel old, you can reassure them that their feelings are, in fact, not ridiculous.

After studying 3,305 people ages 16 to 44, researchers found that the brain’s response time begins to decline at age 24. The descent is a slow, but nonetheless, steady one.

Researchers observed study participants’ reaction times as they played the video game StarCraft 2, and analyzed the speed at which they made “game-time” decisions to save their virtual lives.

The findings shouldn’t completely devastate you. The study also found that older participants compensated for their shortage of speed with strategy and efficiency.

1. Svennerholm L, Boström K, Jungbjer B. Changes in weight and compositions of major membrane components of human brain during the span of adult human life of Swedes. Acta Neuropathol 199794345–352. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

2. Scahill R, Frost C, Jenkins R.et al A longitudinal study of brain volume changes in normal ageing using serial registered magnetic resonance imaging. Arch Neurol 200360989–994. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

3. Raz N. The ageing brain: structural changes and their implications for cognitive ageing. In: Dixon R, Bäckman L, Nilsson L, eds. New frontiers in cognitive ageing. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004115–134.

4. Anderton B. Ageing of the brain. Mech Ageing Dev 2002123811–817. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

5. Kolb B, Wishaw I. Brain plasticity and behaviour. Annu Rev Psychol 19984943–64. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

6. Trollor J, Valenzuela M. Brain ageing in the new millennium. Austr N Z J Psychiatry 200135788–805. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

7. Murphy D, DeCarli C, McIntosh A.et al Sex differences in human brain morphometry and metabolism: an in vivo quantitative magnetic resonance imaging and positron emission tomography study on the effect of ageing. Arch Gen Psychiatry 199653585–594. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

8. Barnes C. Long‐term potentiation and the ageing. Philos Trans Royal Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2003358765–772. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

9. Levine B, Cabeza R, McIntosh A.et al Functional reorganisation of memory after traumatic brain injury: a study with H215O positron emission tomography. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 200273173–181. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

10. Bartzokis G, Cummings J, Sultzer D.et al White matter structural integrity in healthy ageing adults and patients with Alzheimer disease. Arch Neurol 200360393–398. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

11. Tullberg M, Fletcher E, DeCarli C.et al White matter lesions impair frontal lobe function regardless of their location. Neurology 200463246–253. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

12. Head D, Buckner R, Shimony J.et al Differential vulnerability of anterior white matter in nondemented ageing with minimal acceleration in dementia of the Alzheimer type: evidence from diffusion tensor imaging. Cereb Cortex 200414410–423. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

13. Artero S, Tiemeier H, Prins N.et al Neuroanatomical localisation and clinical correlates of white matter lesions in the elderly. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2004751304–1308. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

14. Compton J, Van Amelsoort T, Murphy D. HRT and its effect on normal ageing of the brain and dementia. Br J Clin Pharmacol 200152647–653. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

15. Hultsch D, Macdonald S. Intraindividual variability in performance as a theoretical window onto cognitive ageing. In: Dixon R, Bäckman L, Nilsson L, eds. New frontiers in cognitive ageing. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 200465–88.

16. Gallagher M, Rapp P. The use of animal models to study the effects of ageing on cognition. Annu Rev Psychol 199748339–370. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

17. Gunning‐Dixon F, Raz N. Neuroanatomical correlates of selected executive functions in middle aged and older adults: a prospective MRI study. Neuropsychologia 2003411929–1941. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

18. Parkin A.Memory and amnesia. Oxford: Blackwall, 1997

19. Reber A S.Dictionary of psychology. London: Penguin, 1995

20. Nyberg L, Bäckman L. Cognitive ageing: a view from brain imaging. In: Dixon R, Bäckman L, Nilsson L, eds. New frontiers in cognitive ageing. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004135–160.

21. Cabeza R. Commentary: neuroscience frontiers of cognitive ageing: approaches to cognitive neuroscience of ageing. In: Dixon R, Bäckman L, Nilsson L, eds. New frontiers in cognitive ageing. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004179–198.

22. Lustig C, Buckner R. Preserved neural correlates of priming in old age and dementia. Neuron 200442865–875. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

23. Cabeza R, Daselaar S, Dolcos F.et al Task‐independent and task‐specific age effects on brain activity during working memory, visual attention and episodic retrieval. Cerebral Cortex 200414364–375. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

24. Cabeza R. Cognitive neuroscience of ageing: contributions of functional neuroimaging. Scand J Psychol 200142277–286. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

25. Rosen A, Prull M, O'Hara R.et al Variable effects of ageing on frontal lobe contributions to memory. Neuroreport 2002132425–2428. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

26. Friedman D. Cognition and ageing: a highly selective overview of event‐related potential (ERP) data. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 200325702–720. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

27. Mukherjee J, Christian B, Dunigan K.et al Brain imageing of 18F‐Fallypride in normal volunteers: blood analysis, distribution, test‐retest studies, and preliminary assessment of sensitivity to ageing effects on dopamine D‐2/D‐3 receptors. Synapse 200246170–188. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

28. Mattson M, Maudsley S, Martin B. BDNF and 5‐HT: a dynamic duo in age‐related neuronal plasticity and neurodegenerative disorders. Trends Neurosci 200427589–594. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

29. Volchegorskii I, Shemyakov S, Turygin V.et al The age dynamics of monoamine oxidase activity and levels of lipid peroxidation products in the human brain. Neurosci Behav Physiol 200434303–305. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

30. Toescu E, Verkhratsky A, Landfield P. Ca2+ regulation and gene expression in normal brain ageing. Trends Neurosci 200427614–620. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

31. Melov S. Modeling mitochondrial function in ageing neurons. Trends Neurosci 200427601–606. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

32. Craig M, Cutter W, Wickham H.et al Effect of long term estrogen therapy on dopaminergic responsivity in post menopausal women—a preliminary study. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2004291309–1316. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

33. Herlitz A, Yonker J. Hormonal effects on cognition in adults. In: Dixon R, Bäckman L, Nilsson L, eds. New frontiers in cognitive ageing. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004253–278.

34. Tan Z, Seshadri S, Beiser A.et al Bone mineral density and the risk of Alzheimer disease. Arch Neurol 200562107–111. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

35. Ng C, Panay N. Hormone replacement therapy update. Geriatric Medicine 20043427–34. [Google Scholar]

36. Sytze van Dam P, Aleman A. Insulin – like growth factor‐I, cognition and brain ageing. Eur J Pharmacol 200449087–95. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

37. Ibáñez V, Pietrini P, Furey M.et al Resting state brain glucose metabolism is not reduced in normotensive healthy men during ageing, after correction for brain atrophy. Brain Res Bull 200463147–154. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

38. Elias M, Sullivan L, Agostino R.et al Framingham stroke risk profile and lowered cognitive performance. Stroke 200435404–409. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

39. Lobo A, Launer L, Fratiglioni L, for the Neurologic Diseases in the Elderly Research Group et al Prevalence of dementia and major subtypes in Europe: a collaborative study of population based‐cohorts. Neurology 200054S4–S5. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

40. Atwood L, Wolf P, Heard‐Costa N.et al Genetic variation in white matter hyperintensity volume in the Framingham study. Stroke 2004351609–1613. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

41. Petkov C, Wu C, Eberling J.et al Correlates of memory function in community‐dwelling elderly: the importance of white matter hyperintensities. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 200410371–381. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

42. Kuo H, Lipsitz L. Cerebral white matter changes and geriatric syndromes: is there a link? J Gerontol 200459A818–826. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

43. Marstrand J, Garde E, Rostrup E.et al Cerebral perfusion and cerebrovascular reactivity are reduced in white matter hyperintensities. Stroke 200233972–976. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

44. Moody D, Thore C, Anstrom J.et al Quantification of afferent vessels shows reduced brain vascular density in subjects with leukoaraiosis. Radiology 2004233883–890. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

45. Mezzapesa D, Rocca M, Pagini E.et al Evidence of subtle gray‐matter pathologic changes in healthy individuals with nonspecific white‐matter hyperintensities. Arch Neurol 2003601109–1112. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

46. Kövari E, Gold G, Herrmann F.et al Cortical microinfarcts and demyelination significantly affect cognition in brain ageing. Stroke 200435410–414. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

47. Goldstein I, Bartzokis G, Guthrie D.et al Ambulatory blood pressure and brain atrophy in the healthy elderly. Neurology 200259713–719. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

48. Taki Y, Goto R, Evans A.et al Voxel‐based morphometry of human brain with age and cerebrovascular risk factors. Neurobiol Ageing 200425455–463. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

49. Finch C. Neurons, glia, and plasticity in normal brain ageing. Neurobiol Ageing 200324S123–S127. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

50. Kempermann G, Wiskott L, Gage F. Functional significance of adult neurogenesis. Curr Opin Neurobiol 200414186–191. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

51. Lie D, Song H, Colamarino S.et al Neurogenesis in the adult brain: new strategies for central nervous system diseases. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 200444399–421. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

52. Riddle D, Sonntag W, Lichtenwalner R. Microvascular plasticity in ageing. Ageing Res Rev 20032149–168. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

53. De Leeuw F, Barkhof F, Scheltens P. Alzheimer's disease—one clinical syndrome, two radiological expressions: a study on blood pressure. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2004751270–1274. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

54. Schneider J, Wilson R, Cochran E.et al Relation of cerebral infarctions to dementia and cognitive function in older persons. Neurology 200311082–1088. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

55. Langa K, Foster N, Larson E. Mixed dementia. JAMA 20042922901–2908. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

56. Fratiglioni L, Launer L, Anderson K, for the Neurologic Diseases in the Elderly Research Group et al Incidence of dementia and major subtypes in Europe: a collaborative study of population‐based cohorts. Neurology 200054S10–S15. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

57. Gold G. Reevaluating the role of vascular changes in the differential diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia. Eur Neurol 199840121–129. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

58. Torre J. Alzheimer disease as a vascular disorder nosological evidence. Stroke 2002331152–1162. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

59. Blauw G, Bollen E, Buchem M.et al Dementia at old age: a clinical end‐point of atherosclerotic disease. Eur Heart J 2001(suppl 3)N16–N19. [PubMed]

60. Barker W, Luis C, Kashuba A.et al Relative frequencies of Alzheimer disease, Lewy body, vascular and frontotemporal dementia, and hippocampal sclerosis in the State of Florida Brain Bank. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord 200216203–212. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

61. Sparks D, Scheff S, Liu H.et al Increased incidence of neurofibrillary tangles (NFT) in non‐demented individuals with hypertension. J Neurol Sci 1995131162–169. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

62. Jellinger K. Alzheimer disease and cerebrovascular pathology: an update. J Neural Trans 2002109813–836. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

63. Breteler M. Vascular involvement in cognitive decline and dementia. Ann New York Acad Sci 2000903457–465. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

64. Ellis R, Olichney J, Thal L.et al Cerebral amyloid angiopathy in the brains of patients with Alzheimer's disease: the CERAD experience, part XV. Neurology 1996461592–1596. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

65. Jellinger K, Mitter‐Ferstl E. The impact of cerebrovascular lesions in Alzheimer's disease. J Neurol 20032501050–1055. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

66. Lee J, Olichney J, Hansen L.et al Small concomitant vascular lesions do not influence rates of cognitive decline in patients with Alzheimer's disease. Arch Neurol 2000571474–1479. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

67. Stewart R. Cardiovascular factors in Alzheimer's disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 199865143–147. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

68. Rigaud S, Seux M, Staessen J.et al Cerebral complications of hypertension. J Hum Hypertens 200014605–616. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

69. Schmidt R, Schmidt H, Fazekas F. Vascular risk factors in dementia. J Neurol 200024781–87. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

70. Xuereb J, Brayne C, Dufouil C.et al Neuropathological findings in the very old. Ann New York Acad Sci 2000903491–496. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

71. Wen W, Sachdev P. The topography of white matter hyperintensities on brain MRI in healthy 60‐ to 64‐year‐old individuals. NeuroImage 200322144–154. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

72. Silver M, Newell K, Brady C.et al Distinguishing between neurodegenerative disease and disease‐free ageing: correlating neuropsychological evaluations and neuropathological studies in centenarians. Psychosom Med 200264493–501. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

73. Perls T. Centenarians who avoid dementia. Trends Neurosci 200427633–636. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

74. Hof P, Morrison J. The ageing brain: morphomolecular senescence of cortical circuits. Trends Neurosci 200427607–613. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

75. Arneiz E, Almkvist O, Ivnik R.et al Mild cognitive impairment: a cross‐national comparison. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2003751275–1280. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

76. Grundman M, Petersen R, Ferris S, for the Alzheimer's disease co‐operative study et al Mild cognitive impairment can be distinguished from Alzheimer's disease and normal ageing for clinical trials. Arch Neurol 20046159–66. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

77. Pfefferbaum A, Sullivan E, Carmelli D. Morphological changes in brain structures are differentially affected by time‐linked environmental influences despite strong genetic stability. Neurobiol Ageing 200425175–183. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

78. Teter B, Finch C. Caliban's heritance and the genetics of neuronal ageing. Trends Neurosci 200427627–633. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

79. Mattson M, Chan S, Duan W. Modification of brain ageing and neurodegenerative disorders by genes, diet and behaviour. Physiol Rev 200282637–672. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

80. Shepherd J, Blauw G, Murphy M, on behalf of the PROSPER study group et al Pravastatin in elderly individuals at risk of vascular disease (PROSPER): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 20021–8. [PubMed]

81. Budge M, Johnston C, Hogervorst E.et al Plasma total homocysteine and cognitive performance in a volunteer elderly population. Ann New York Acad Sci 2000903407–410. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

82. Joosten E. Homocysteine, vascular dementia and Alzheimer's disease. Clinical Chemical Laboratory Medicine 200139717–720. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

83. Sastre A, Grimley Evan J. Effect of the treatment of type II diabetes mellitus on the development of cognitive impairment and dementia. Cochrane Library. Issue 2. Oxford: Update Software, 2003

84. Fontbonne A, Berr C, Ducimetiere P.et al Changes in cognitive abilities over a 4 year period are unfavourably affected in elderly diabetic subjects: results of the epidemiology of vascular ageing study. Diabetes Care 200124366–370. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

85. Bruce D, Casey G, Grange V.et al Cognitive impairment, physical disability and depressive symptoms in older diabetic patients: the Freemantle cognition in diabetes study. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 20036159–67. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

86. Prins N, Den Heijer T, Hofman A.et al Homocsteine and cognitive function in the elderly. Neurology 2002591375–1380. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

87. Kado D, Karlamangla A, Huang M.et al Homocysteine versus the vitamins folate, B6, and B12 as predictors of cognitive function and decline in older high‐functioning adults: MacArthur studies of successful ageing. Am J Med 2005118161–167. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

88. Otsuka M, Yamaguchi K, Ueki A. Similarities and differences between Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia from the viewpoint of nutrition. Ann New York Acad Sci 2002977155–161. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

89. Mattson M. Will calorific restriction and folate protect against AD and PD? Neurology 200360690–695. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

90. Barja G. Free radicals and ageing. Trends Neurosci 200427595–600. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

91. Bodles A, Barger S. Cytokines and the ageing brain—what we don't know might help us. Trends Neurosci 200427621–626. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

92. He K, Song Y, Daviglus M.et al Fish consumption and incidence of stroke. A meta‐analysis of cohort studies. Stroke 2004351538–1542. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

93. Zandi P, Anthony J, Khachaturian A, for the Cache county study group et al Reduced risk of Alzheimer disease in users of antioxidant vitamin supplements. Arch Neurol 20046182–88. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

94. McDaniel M, Maier S, Einstein G. ‘Brain‐specific' nutrients: a memory cure? Nutrition 200319957–965. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

95. Heijer T, Vermeer S, Dijk E.et al Alcohol intake in relation to brain magnetic resonance imageing findings in older persons without dementia. Am J Clin Nutr 200480992–997. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

96. Mukamal K, Kuller L, Fitzpatrick A.et al Prospective study of alcohol consumption and risk of dementia in older adults. JAMA 20032891405–1413. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

97. Ruitenberg A, Swieten J, Witteman J.et al Alcohol consumption and risk of dementia: the Rotterdam study. Lancet 2002359281–286. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

98. Larrieu S, Letenneur L, Helmer C.et al Nutritional factors and risk of incident dementia in the PAQUID longitudinal cohort. J Nutr Health Ageing 20048150–154. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

99. Kramer A, Hahn S, Cohen N.et al Ageing, fitness and neurocognitive function. Nature 1999400418–419. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

100. Colcombe S, Erickson K, Raz N.et al Aerobic fitness reduces brain tissue loss n ageing humans. J Gerontol 200358A176–180. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

101. Piguet O, Grayson D, Broe A.et al Normal ageing and executive functions in the ‘old‐old' community dwellers poor performance is not an inevitable outcome. Int Psychogeriatr 200214139–159. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

102. Shenkin S, Bastin M, MacGillivray T.et al Childhood and current cognitive function in healthy 80‐year‐olds: a DT‐MRI study. NeuroReport 200314345–349. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

103. Staff R, Murray A, Deary I.et al What provides cerebral reserve? Brain 20041271191–1199. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

104. Green S, Kaye J, Ball M. The Oregon brain ageing study: neuropathology accompanying healthy ageing in the oldest old. Neurology 200054105–121. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

105. Rabbitt P, Chetwynd A, McInnes L. Do clever brains age more slowly? Further exploration of a nun result. Br J Psychol 20039463–71. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

106. Hertzog C. Does longitudinal evidence confirm theories of cognitive ageing derived from cross‐sectional data? In: Dixon R, Bäckman L, Nilsson L, eds. New frontiers in cognitive ageing. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 200441–64.

Which type of information is the most likely to decline with age?

Other types of memory (i.e., primary memory, procedural memory, priming) may also change relatively little from early to late adulthood [5]. Episodic memory is considered to be the form of long-term memory that displays the largest degree of age-related decline 4, 5, 6, 7.

Which mental change is associated with aging?

The most common mental and neurological disorders in this age group are dementia and depression, which affect approximately 5% and 7% of the world's older population, respectively.