OverviewConsideration is the price that is asked by the promisor in exchange for their promise – the price for a promise. Show In many jurisdictions consideration is not an essential element of a contract – it is sufficient that parties have reached a binding agreement. However, the common law requires that (subject to limited exceptions), for an agreement to be binding, the promisee (or promisees) must provide consideration (payment of some kind) for the promise they have received. As a result, gratuitous promises are generally not enforceable. General rules | Special rules and situations | Exceptions | Commentary General rulesConsideration as the price for the promiseConsideration is the price stipulated by the promisor (person making the promise) for the promise made. This requires two things. First, that there be some 'price' (in the form of a benefit to the promisor or detriment to the promisee) and that this price be given in exchange for the promise (as a 'quid pro quo' for the promise to which it relates). Price - benefit/detriment Price is used in a broad sense; it need not be monetary or even of monetary value. It may involve a 'detriment' on the part of the promisee in the form of giving up a freedom otherwise enjoyed (such as promising to stop smoking or to study every Saturday night) - it is not necessary that the promisor receive any tangible benefit. In Carlill, for example the Court said that it would be sufficient if Mrs Carlill suffered the detriment from using the smoke ball as directed even if the Carbolic Smoke Ball Co received no benefit (this was obiter as the Court concluded that the company did in fact receive a benefit).
It follows from this that consideration must move from the promisee but need move to the promisor. For example, if promisor (A) asks promisee (B) to pay (C) a sum of money as consideration for A's promise to B, that will be good consideration. However, if promisor (A) asks (C) to provide a payment as consideration for A's promise to B, that will not constitute good consideration (there is no detriment to B in such as case). In the case of joint promisees, it is sufficient if consideration moves from one of the parties.
Quid pro quo It is not sufficient that there be a benefit or detriment. Additionally, it must be the case that that benefit is given or detriment is suffered as the price for the promise - that is, it is part of a bargained for exchange. It is not sufficient consideration for the promisee to merely act in reliance on a promise, if that act was not part of a bargained for exchange.
Consideration can be anything stipulated by the promisorIt is for the promisor to stipulate the consideration for his/her promise (directly or indirectly), not for the promisee to proffer something and call it consideration - however, as indicated above, provided the consideration stipulated it legal, it can take virtually any form and, importantly, need not be of comparable value to the promise for which it is provided. The most famous case regarding the nature of consideration is Chappell v Nestle in which Lord Somervell of Harrow expressed the view that a 'peppercorn' could constitute valuable consideration (if stipulated by the promisor) even if the promisor was not fond of peppers and would discard the corn (note, however, that adequacy of consideration may be relevant in other respects; in particular, it may be evidence of duress or unconscionable conduct which may render the contract voidable. Other key cases discussing consideration include:
Special rules and situationsConsideration can be anything stipulated by the promisor, provided it is not illegal. The consideration must, however, have 'value' in the eyes of the law - that is to say, it must exist! Consequently, an illusionary undertaking (I promise to give you my car if you pay me whatever sum of money you choose (which may be nothing)) cannot be good consideration.
Past consideration is not good considerationThe consideration must come into existence either at the same time or after the promise. Where the stipulated consideration pre-dates the promise, it will not be considered 'good' consideration (eg, a promise by A to transfer ownership of a car to B in exchange for assistance B provided to A the previous month). This was discussed in, Roscola v Thomas, where the promise was not binding because the only “consideration” provided for a promise about the soundness of a horse was entering into the original contract - this had occurred before the promise was made.
Exception Past consideration can be good consideration if (a) provided at the request of the promisor (b) the parties understood that the act would be remunerated and (c) had the promise occurred in advance of the act it would have been enforceable.
Performing existing duty not good considerationWhere the promisee is already contractually bound to the promisor, the general rule is that performance of an existing contractual obligation will not be good consideration unless some additional benefit is conferred. However, it is sometimes difficult to determine whether an additional benefit is conferred; in particular, a benefit may exist if performance of the existing duty avoids problems that are associated with non-performance (and the benefit of that exceeds the detriment likely to have been suffered by non-performance: Musumeci)
The position is different where the promisee contractually bound to a 3rd party to perform the obligation. In a case where the promisee’s contractual duty is owed to a third party, performing (or promising to perform) that duty is good consideration for the promisor’s promise.
Where a duty is imposed by law to perform a certain task mere performance of that task is not good consideration. This seeks to prevent corruption - public officials extorting money from the public for performing tasks they are already required to perform. However, if the promisor does more than merely perform an existing duty this will be good consideration.
Part payment of a debt: the rule in Pinnel’s caseAs a general rule part payment of a debt is not good consideration for the creditor’s promise to forgo the balance. In paying part of the debt the promisee is doing no more than performing an existing contractual duty owed to the promisor. This rule, that payment of a lesser sum on the day cannot be satisfaction for the whole – known as the rule in Pinnels case – was finally established by Foakes v Beer.
There are, however, exceptions; part payment will be good consideration where (a) Earlier payment is made Receiving the lesser sum earlier is good consideration. (b) Payment is made with something else The additional factor provides consideration. This is one of the sources of criticism of the general rule: payment of $999 out of $1,000 will not be good consideration for a promise to forgo the $1 balance. However, payment of $10 plus book worth $5 will be good consideration (provided stipulated by the promisor) for the promise to forgo the balance of $990) (c) Where it arises from a composition Agreements Where a debtor agrees with all his creditors and they agree to accept a dividend, payment will discharge the debtor from further liability to the creditors. This is to prevent fraud between the other debtors. (d) Where payment is made by a third party This exception is explained on the basis that it would be a fraud on the 3rd party to allow the creditor’s claim (e) Where the claim is unqualified The rule does not apply to unliquidated or disputed claims. Executed versus executory considerationConsideration is sometimes classified into 'executed' and 'executory' consideration; either is sufficient. Executed consideration takes the form of performing an act rather than a promise of performance. Executory consideration consists of a promise to do something. Most contracts take the form of executory consideration; thus they comprise of initial promises (eg, promise to buy and sell, even if payment and exchange of property occurs almost immediately). Distinguishing consideration from conditionsThe act requested by the promisor will only be consideration if it was regarded as the price to be paid for the promise. The test is the attitude of the reasonable person. If the act is regarded as a condition then it is something that must be performed before entitlement to the promise arises, but performance (absent separate consideration) does not allow the promisee to enforce the promise.
ExceptionsThere are two exceptions to the need for consideration (a) promises under seal (deeds) (b) where the doctrine of promissory estoppel operates (this is not strictly speaking an exception; the doctrine is designed to enforce promises in limited circumstances where it would be inequitable not to do so - but it is not a true substitute for consideration). Promises made under seal (deeds)Promises made under seal (deeds) do not require consideration. These are referred to as 'formal' contracts, but that designation can be misleading. Deeds do not need to involve complex contracts and many (indeed most) complex written contracts will not be 'formal' contracts in this sense. Promissory estoppelThis is not really an exception, but where it operates has the effect of preventing a promisor relying on absence of consideration to avoid making good their promise. Promissory estoppel is equitable in nature (often called ‘equitable estoppel’) and operates when it would be inequitable for the promisor not to be held to the promise – the modern doctrine developed with the judgment of Denning LJ in Central London v High Trees. There were, however, important limitations to the doctrine - (a) It applied only where the parties were already in an existing contractual relationship; and (b) It provided only a defence to a claim made by the promisor in violation of the promise – it could not found a claim. In Australia, the doctrine has developed beyond those restrictions following the High Court’s decision in Walton Stores. This case establishes the following pre-conditions for promissory estoppel: The preconditions to estoppel operating in this context remain significant. (1) Defendant must make a promise of some kind (2) Defendant must also create or encourage an assumption on Plaintiffs part that promise will be performed (3) Plaintiff must rely upon this to its detriment; and (4) It must be unconscionable, having regard to the Defendant's conduct, for the Defendant to be free to ignore the promise. Walton Stores v Maher (High Court, 1988) For a (relatively) recent High Court discussion of this issue see:
What is the general rule of consideration?Consideration must move from the promisee but need not flow to the promisor. Consideration must be sufficient but need not be adequate. Consideration cannot be illusory. Consideration must not be past.
What is the legal term for a promise in a contract?PROMISE: An engagement by which the promisor contracts towards another to perform or do something to the advantage of the latter. When a promise is reduced to the form of a written agreement under seal, it is called a covenant.
What promises are legally enforceable?If one party makes a statement or a promise that causes another party to rely on that statement in such a way that he or she is financially injured by that reliance, then a court will enforce the statement or promise as if it was a completed contract.
Is an enforceable promise a contract?A contract in its most basic definition is nothing more than a legally enforceable promise. A contract where the parties exchange a promise for a promise is known as a Bilateral Contract, whereas a contract where one party gives a promise and the other party performs an act is known as a Unilateral Contract.
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